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COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


FOR 


HIGHER     SCHOOLS 


BY 

SARA    E.   H.   LOCKWOOD 

Author  of  "  Lessons  in  English  " 
AND 

MARY   ALICE   EMERSON,  B.A. 

Hbad  of  the  Department  of  English  in  the  State  Normal  School 
Bridgewater,  Massachusetts 


BOSTON,  U.S.A. 
GINN  &   COMPANY,  PUBLISHERS 

1902 


'•■f: 


Copyright,  1901 
By  GINN  &  COMPANY 

ALL   RIGHTS   RESERVED 


TO 

OUR   PUPILS 

WHOSE   APPRECIATIVE   SYMPATHY 

HAS   MADE  OF   OUR    SCHOOLROOM    DAYS 

A   DELIGHTFUL    EXPERIENCE 


IDDCAITIOI  llBB. 


^?7 

U2l  7 


PREFACE 


Certain  demands  may  fairly  be  made  of  any  text- 
book that  purposes  to  serve  the  cause  of  good  teaching 
and  aims  to  win  an  honorable  place  in  the  classroom. 
Two  of  these  demands  take  the  form  of  the  categorical 
imperative :  the  book  must  be  practical,  and  it  must  be 
adequate  in  scope  and  content.  To  these  two  should  be 
added  a  third  —  the  book  must  be  interesting ;  for  to  sen- 
tence students  to  the  use  of  a  dull  and  lifeless  text-book 
is,  often,  to  condemn  them  to  a  lifelong  distaste  for  the 
subject  of  that  particular  book.  Then,  in  these  days  of 
many  books,  the  newcomer  may  fairly  be  asked  to  show 
some  traits  of  its  own  such  as  stamp  personality  on  a  man 
or  a  woman,  —  traits  which  will  mark  it  out  at  once  from 
other  books  in  its  class. 

Two  of  the  important  characteristics  which  give  this 
book  its  distinct  individuality  are  :  (1)  The  cumulative 
method  of  treatment  shown  in  the  text^  in  the  illustrative 
examples^  and  especially  in  the  exercises ;  and  (2)  The  con- 
stant emphasis  laid  on  the  pupiVs  own  thinking  and  writing. 
These  features  are  particularly  well  illustrated  in  the 
treatment  of  the  paragraph.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
book  the  single  paragraph  is  made  the  unit  of  writing  ; 
then,  naturally  and  gradually,  related  paragraphs  are 
introduced;  and,  finally,  these  develop  into  the  longer 
theme.  The  student  at  first  gains  a  clear  understanding 
of  the  meaning  of  the  paragraph  by  observing  its  use  in 

V 

mRI 5S22 


VI  PREFACE 

the  selections  given  for  retelling  another  person's  thought ; 
next  by  the  study  of  its  relation  to  his  own  notes  and 
outlines  ;  and  then  by  using  it  in  his  own  writing.  Still 
later  in  the  course  the  pupil  takes  up  the  analytical  and 
detailed  study  of  the  paragraph  and  its  essential  quali- 
ties —  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis.  Throughout  the 
work  on  the  paragraph,  as  in  all  other  subjects  treated, 
the  student  is  led  to  develop  for  himself  a  simple  and 
natural  theory  and  practice  of  writing. 

The  book  is  divided  into  four  parts  to  mark  the  natural 
stages  in  the  development  of  the  subject,  and  to  aid 
teachers  in  the  arrangement  of  their  work.  Part  I  begins 
with  reviews  of  Grammar  and  Punctuation.  The  exer- 
cises in  these  reviews  are  so  arranged  as  to  furnish  valu- 
able written  work ;  but  if  it  is  desired,  the  chapters  may 
be  used  primarily  for  reference.  This  Part  also  includes 
the  necessary  instruction  for  retelling  another  person's 
thought,  and  for  the  expression  of  the  pupil's  own  thought 
in  simple  description  from  observation  and  in  simple  nar- 
ration from  experience. 

Part  II  treats  description  and  narration  in  a  more 
advanced  way,  emphasizing  the  use  of  the  imagination 
in  producing  certain  desired  impressions.  There  is  also  a 
thorough  discussion  of  the  theme  and  its  preparation. 

Part  III  deals  with  the  parts  of  the  completed  theme  — 
the  paragraph,  the  sentence,  and  the  word.  The  pupil's 
critical  and  analytical  view  of  his  own  work  is  appro- 
priate at  this  stage  of  his  writing,  and  correlates  well 
with  his  work  in  the  college  requirements. 

Part  IV  treats  the  prose  forms  of  composition,  espe- 
cially   the    oration    and    the    debate,    with   considerable 


PREFACE  Vll 

detail.  It  also  furnishes  interesting  composition  work  in 
connection  with  the  analysis  of  a  typical  novel  and  drama, 
and  with  the  study  of  poetic  forms.  Chapter  XIX  on 
Figures  of  Speech  is  a  reference  chapter,  to  be  used 
whenever  needed. 

Other  less  prominent  but  particularly  helpful  features 
of  the  book  are :  the  sections  on  translating  into  English, 
on  note-taking,  on  making  outlines,  on  the  writing  of 
examination  papers,  on  the  use  of  the  library,  and  on 
the  use  of  the  dictionary.  Topical  headings,  summaries 
at  the  close  of  chapters,  cross-references,  pictures,  and 
the  index  are  also  important. 

In  giving  the  work  to  the  public  we  desire  to  express 
grateful  appreciation  of  the  encouragement  and  help 
rendered  by  various  teachers.  For  valuable  suggestions 
and  critical  supervision  while  these  pages  were  going 
through  the  press,  we  are  especially  indebted  to  Mr. 
Frederick  D.  Nichols,  recently  in  charge  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  English  in  the  Academy  of  the  University  of 
Chicago,  Morgan  Park,  Illinois ;  Dr.  Laura  E.  Lockwood, 
Instructor  in  Literature  and  English  in  Wellesley  College, 
Wellesley,  Mass. ;  Mrs.  Emily  Meader  Easton,  recently 
Head  of  the  English  Department  of  the  Classical  High 
School,  Providence,  Rhode  Island;  and  Mr.  Frank  M. 
Bronson,  Academy  Assistant  Professor  in  the  University 
of  Chicago. 

THE   AUTHORS. 
August  15,  1901. 


SPECIAL   MARKS  OF   CORRECTION 

In  connection  with  the  use  of  the  dictionary,  the  marks 

of  correction  used  by  proof  readers  (see  §  228,  11)  are 

recommended  for  use  in  the  criticism  of  themes.  The 
following  list  of  abbreviations  provides  other  marks  of 
correction  commonly  used : 

Amb ambiguity. 

Awk awkwardness. 

Brb barbarism. 

Cd need  of  condensation. 

C lack  of  coherence. 

Em lack  of  emphasis. 

Euph lack  of  euphony. 

Exp need  of  expansion. 

Fig faulty  figure. 

Gram.    " poor  grammar. 

Imp impropriety. 

Obs obscurity. 

P poor  punctuation. 

Red redundancy. 

Sp poor  spelling. 

Taut tautology. 

Tr need  of  transposition. 

U lack  of  unity. 

Var lack  of  variety. 

Verb verbosity.     ^ 

? false  or  doubtful  statement. 

!  I pretentious  language. 


viii 


CONTENTS 


Part  I 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  Review  of  English  Grammar 1 

II.  Review  of  Punctuation 47 

III.  Retelling  Another  Person's  Thought      ...     80 

IV.  Expression  of  the  Pupil's  Own  Thoughts    .     .  104 
V.  Letter-Writing 129 

Part  II 

VI.  Imagination  in  Description 151 

VII.  Imagination  in  Narration 166 

VTII.  Collection  of  Material  for  a  Theme      .     .     .  179 

tX.  Development  of  the  Outline  and  the  Thkmk  .  195 

X.  Essential  Qualities  of  the  Theme 204 


Part  III 

XI.  The  Paragraph 222 

XII.  Development  of  the  Isolated  Paragraph     .     .  240 

XIII.  Related  Paragraphs 261 

XIV.  The  Sentence 272 

XV.  Words 302 

Part  IV 

XVI.     Important  Forms  of  Prose 345 

XVII.     Critical  Study  of  the  Novel  and  the  Dhama 

as  Literary  Forms 393 

XVm.     Poetic  Forms 412 

XIX.     Figures  of  Speech 424 

ix 


COMPOSITION  AND  EHETORIC 

Part  I 

CHAPTER   I 
A  REVIEW   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

"  Grammar  is  the  humble,  oft-despised,  but  truly  loyal  handmaid  of 
thought's  best  expression." 

I.     INTRODUCTION 

1.  Language.  The  word  "  language  "  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  lingua^  meaning  tongue.  Its  first  meaning  is,  there- 
fore, the  expression  of  thought  by  the  use  of  the  tongue. 
But  there  are  other  ways  by  which  thought  may  be  com- 
municated. For  example,  some  of  the  North  American 
Indians  have  a  method  of  conversing  by  gestures,  without 
speaking  at  all ;  sea  captains  often  "•  wig-wag,"  i.e.  talk 
with  one  another  at  a  distance  by  signals  ;  the  Egyptians 
exchanged  ideas  by  means  of  '-'-  hieroglyphics  " ;  and  all 
civilized  people  use  written  signs.  In  its  broadest  sense, 
therefore,  language  means  all  the  ways  in  which  men 
make  known  their  thoughts.  In  the  common  use  of  the 
term,  language  is  the  expression  of  thought  by  means  of  spoken  or 

written  words. 

1 


^  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

2.  Words.  When  we  speak  or  write  the  word  '^  horse," 
we  as  truly  make  a  sign,  as  a  deaf-mute  does  when  he 
expresses  the  idea  *'  horse  "  by  his  fingers.  Our  sign  for 
horse  cannot  be  understood  by  any  one  who  does  not  know 
the  English  language;  for  different  languages  have  differ- 
ent words  —  i.e.  signs  —  for  the  same  idea.  Words  are  signs 
of  ideas.      Many  words  suggest  distinct  ideas. 

Ex.    Farmer,  cat,  dog,  house,  rose,  call  up  to  our  minds  pictures 
ot  persons,  animals,  or  things. 
Walk,  write,  sing,  suggest  kinds  of  action.        " 
Yellow,  blue,  tall,  beautiful,  suggest  qualities  belonging  to 
persons  or  things. 

If,  however,  we  wish  to  say  ''A  boy  is  in  the  tree,"  we 
cannot  express  our  idea  perfectly  by  saying  "boy  .  .  . 
tree,"  still  less  by  saying  "  boy  .  .  .  is  .  .  .  tree."  That 
is,  it  is  not  enough  to  use  simply  words  which  express 
distinct  ideas.  We  need  also  certain  other  words, —  a,  in^ 
the^  —  to  call  up  a  clear  picture  to  the  mind.  So  we  see 
that  words  which  connect  or  limit  other  words  and  show  their 
relations  are  needed  in  the  expression  of  complete  thoughts. 

3.  Sentences.  Words  may  be  joined  to  form  statements 
or  sentences.  A  sentence  is  a  combination  of  words  that  expresses 
a  thought  and  that  contains  a  subject  and  a  predicate.  The  subject 
is  that  part  of  the  sentence  which  represents  the  person  or  the 
thing  of  which  something  is  said.  The  predicate  is  that  part  of 
the  sentence  which  represents  what  is  said  of  a  person  or  a  thing. 
The  subject  is  usually  a  name,  or  it  contains  a  name  with 
other  modifying  words.  The  predicate  must  contain  a 
word  that  has  the  power  of  asserting  or  stating  something. 
In  the  sentence,  "  The  boy  ran  away,"  ran  is  the  asserting 


.  A   REVIEW  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR  3 

word.  In  the  sentence,  **The  apple  is  red,"  is  is  the 
word  that  has  the  asserting  power,  but  red  represents  the 
idea  that  is  to  be  asserted.  This  is  sometimes  called 
the  "predicate  idea,"  or  attribute,  and  red  is  called  the 
"predicate  term,"  or  attribute  of  the  sentence. 

4.  Construction.  The  relations  of  words  to  each  other  in 
sentences  are  shown  in  three  ways:  (1)  by  their  form  ; 
(2)  by  their  arrangement ;  (3)  by  the  use  of  connectiny 
words  like  and^  ivhen^  in,  for^  etc.  In  the  expression 
"John's  T^ook,"  the  form  of  the  word  "John's"  shows  the 
relation  of  "  John  "  to  the  book  ;  that  is,  it  shows  that  he 
is  the  possessor  of  the  book.  In  the  sentence  "James 
struck  Thomas,"  the  order  of  the  words  helps  to  show  that 
"James"  performed  the  action  and  that  "Thomas"  received 
it.  In  the  expression  "The  ambition  of  a  soldier,"  the 
relation  of  "  ambition "  to  "  soldier "  is  shown  by  the 
word  "of."  The  relation  in  which  a  word  stands  to  other 
words  in  connected  speech  is  called  its  construction. 

5.  Grammar.  Some  words  change  their  form  to  express 
different  ideas,  and  the  same  word  may  have  different 
constructions  in  different  expressions. 

The  study  that  treats  of  the  forms  and  the  constructions  of 
words  and  sentences  is  called  grammar.  Grammar  does  not 
make  the  laws  of  a  language ;  it  only  states  them  in  an 
orderly  way. 

6.  Value  of  the  study  of  grammar.  Grammar  does  not 
accomplish  its  full  purpose  unless  it  becomes  a  practical 
aid  to  writing.  While  it  is  possible  to  use  the  English 
language  correctly  without  studying  grammar,  still  such 


4  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

study  ought  to  hasten  the  process  of  acquiring  skill  in 
composition.  The  following  review  is  intended  to  empha- 
size the  most  important  usages  of  the  English  language 
now  approved  by  the  best  writers  and  speakers. 

XL     CLASSIFICATION   OF   THE   PARTS   OF  SPEECH 

7.  Number  and  names  of  the  parts  of  speech.  There  are  eight 
parts  of  speech,  or  classes  into  which  words  are  divided  according 
to  their  use.  *  These  parts  of  speech  are  called  nouns,  pro- 
nouns, adjectives,  verbs,  adverbs,  prepositions,  conjunc- 
tions, and  interjections. 

8.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  a  person,  a  place,  or  a  thing. 

1.  A  proper  noun  is  the  name  by  which  we  distinguish 
a  particular  person,  place,  or  thing  from  others  of  the  same 
kind. 

Ex.    Henry,  Shakespeare,  Boston,  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, Central  Park,  the  Mayflower. 

2.  A  common  noun  is  usually  the  name  which  may  be 
applied  to  any  one  of  a  whole  class  of  persons,  places,  or 
things. 

Ex.    Boy,  city,  bird,  pencil. 

Some  kinds  of  common  nouns  are  given  special  names. 

1.  Names  of  qualities  and  general  ideas  are  called 
abstract  nouns. 

Ex.    Beauty,  goodness,  truth,  anger,  success. 

2.  Names  of  groups  of  persons,  animals,  or  things  are 
called  collective  nouns.  y 

Ex.    Crowd,  class,  school,  army,  congregation;  flock,  herd; 
fleet,  cluster. 


A  REVIEW  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  b 

3.  Nouns  formed  from  verbs  are  called  verbal  nouns. 
Ex.    Skating  is  good  exercise.     To  run  is  fine  sport. 

9.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  that  is  used  instead  of  a  noun.  It  stands 
for,  but  does  not  name,  the  person  or  thing  that  the  noun  names. 

1.  A  personal  pronoun  distinguishes  the  speaker,  the 
person  spoken  to,  or  the  person  or  tiling  spoken  of. 

Ex.    I,  you,  he,  she,  it. 

2.  A  relative  pronoun  refere  to  some  noun  or  pronoun 
called  an  antecedent,  and  connects  the  clause  introduced  by 
the  relative  with  that  antecedent.  The  most  common  rela- 
tive pronouns  are  who,  which,  that,  what,  whoever,  ivhichever, 
and  whatever.  Who  and  whoever  relate  to  persons ;  ivhich 
and  whichever,  to  things ;  that,  to  either  persons  or  things. 

Ex.    Sir  Walter  Scott,  who  was  a  famous  novelist,  was  also  the 
author  of  several  notable  poems. 
Water,  which  is  composed  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  is 
necessary  to  life. 
•      The  book  that  you  want  is  on  tlie  table. 

3.  Who,  ivhich,  and  ivhat,  when  used  to  ask  questions, 
are  called  interrogative  pronouns. 

Ex.    Who  is  there?    Which  will  you  have?    What  do  you  want? 

4.  An  adjective  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  whicli  can  be  used 
as  an  adjective.  The  most  important  adjective  pronouns, 
this  and  that,  are  called  demonstrative  pronouns  because 
they  point  out.  Certain  other  adjective  pronouns  are 
called  numeral  pronouns.     Each  is  a  distributive  pronoun. 

Kx.  This  is  my  book.  Those  are  my  apples.  ^'Many  are 
called,  but  few  are  chosen."  Each  of  the  debaters  is 
honest  in  his  views. 


6  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

10.  An  adjective  is  a  w-"»rd  that  describes  or  limits  a  noun  or 
pronoun. 

1.  A  descriptive  adjective  assigns  a  quality. 
Ex.     A  large  apple  was  given  me  by  a  H/it/  farmer. 

2.  The  definite  article  the  and  the  indefinite  article  a 
(or  any  are  adjectives,  because  they  are  used  to  limit 
nouns. 

Ex.     The  captain  praised  his  men. 
A  captain  was  killed  in  battle. 

3.  A  pronomhial  adjective  is  an  adjective  that  can  be 
used  as  a  pronoun.  The  most  important  pronominal 
adjectives  are  the  demonstrative^  distributive^  and  numeral 
adjectives. 

Ex.    That  teacher  has  given  several  oranges  to  each  boy  in 
his  class. 
Every  man  in  both  armies  may  be  a  true  patriot. 

4.  A  proper  adjective  is  an  adjective  formed  from  a 
proper  noun. 

Ex.    Scottish,  Roman. 

11.  A  verb  is  a  word  that  asserts  something  concerning  a  per- 
son, place,  or  thing.  Alone  or  together  with  other  words  it 
may  form  the  predicate  of  a  sentence. 

Ex.    Go,  runs. 

A  group  of  words  w^hich  performs  this  office  is  called 

a  verb  phrase. 

Ex.    May  do,  might  have  been  seen. 

1  An  is  used  before  words  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  a  silent  h ;  a  before 
other  words,  including  those  beginning  with  the  consonant  sound  ot  y  ov  w. 


A   REVIEW  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  7 

1.  A  weak  (or  regular)  verb  is  a  verb  which  forms  its 
past  and  past  participle  by  adding  ed,  d,  or  t  to  the 
present. 


Ex.    Present 

Past 

Past  Participle 

fill 

filled 

filled 

compare 

compared 

compared 

dwell 

dwelt 

dwelt 

2.  A  strong  (or  irregular)  verb  is  a  verb  which  forms  its 
past  and  past  participle  by  changing  the  stem  vowel  of  the 
present  tense  without  adding  any  ending. 

Ex.    Present,  sing  :  past,  sang ;  past  participle,  sung. 

3.  A  transitive  verb  expresses  action  and  usually  needs 
to  be  followed  by  some  noun  or  pronoun  in  order  to  com- 
plete its  meaning.  This  noun  or  pronoun  is  the  direct 
object  of  the  verb. 

Ex.    The  boy  learned  his  lesson. 

4.  An  intransitive  verb  cannot  have  a  dii'ect  object. 
Ex.    The  boy  came  to  school  on  his  bicycle. 

6.  An  auxiliary  verb  is  a  verb  that  helps  another  verb 
to  assert  action.  The  most  common  auxiliary  verbs  are 
be^  have,  do,  shall,  will,  may,  might,  should,  etc. 

is  ) 
Ex.    The  lesson  V  well  learned. 

was  ) 

The  pupils  have  gone  home. 

I  shall  go  to  the  concert  to-night. 


O  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

6.  A  copulative^  verb  is  a  verb  which  connects  an 
attribute  or  predicate  term  with  the  subject ;  as,  "  God 
18  good,"  "  The  apple  seems  mellow."  Be  is  the  usual 
copulative  verb;  but  seem,  become,  and  a  few  other  verbs 
are  similarly  used. 

7.  A  defective  verb  is  a  verb  which  lacks  many  of  the 
usual  verb  forms. 

Ex.    Ought,  must,  and  most  auxiharies. 

8.  An  impersonal  verb  is  a  verb  which  has  no  definite 
subject.     It  usually  stands  as  the  subject. 

Ex.    It  rains.     It  seems. 

12.  An  adverb  is  a  word  which  modifies  the  meaning  of  a  verb, 
an  adjective,  or  another  adverb.  The  most  common  kinds  of 
adverbs  are  those  of  time,  place,  manner,  and  degree. 
Adverbs  of  time,  place,  and  manner  usually  modify 
verbs  ;  adverbs  of  degree  usually  modify  adjectives  or 
other  adverbs. 

Ex.    The  books  are  now  on  the  shelves.     (Time.) 
There  is  the  man  you  want.     (Place.) 
The  ship  sailed  slowly  away.     (Manner.) 
This  apple  is  very  large.     (Degree.) 

13.  A  preposition  is  a  word  which  shows  the  relation  between 
a  noun  or  pronoun  and  some  other  word  or  words  in  the  sentence. 

Ex.    The  boy  ran  away  from  school,  and  caught  five  trout 
in  a  brook  on  his  father's  farm. 

1  In  distinction  from  copulative  verbs,  all  other  verbs  are  called  by  some 
grammarians  attributive  verbs. 


A   REVIEW   OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  9 

14.  A  conjunction  is  a  word  which  connects  words,  phrases,  or 
clauses. 

1.  A  coordinate  conjuiictioii  connects  words  or  groups 
of  words  of  the  same  rank. 

Ex.   Mr.  Brown  and  Mr.  Smith  are  neighbors. 

It  seems  easy  for  some  people  to  say  one  thing  and  to 

mean  another. 
William  went  to  the  seashore,  but  his  sister  went  to  the 

mountains. 

2.  A  subordinate  conjunction  connects  groups  of  words 
of  unequal  rank ;  usually  a  subordinate  clause  with  a 
principal  clause  (see  §  39,  2). 

Ex.    We  missed  the  train  because  he  was  late. 
Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him. 
If  you  see  Margaret  to-day,  please  give  her  this  book. 

3.  Correlative  conjunctions  are  conjunctions  that  are 
used  in  pairs.  The  correlatives  most  often  used  are 
either  .  .  .  or;  neither  .   .  .  7ior. 

In  a  similar  way  a  few  conjunctions  are  paired  with 
other  words. 

Ex.    Both   .   .   .  and ;  not  only   .   .  .  but  also. 

Note.  —  For  the  position  of  correlatives  in  the  sentence, 
see  §  209. 

Ex.    Both  the  President  and  the  Vice-President  of  the  United 

States  are  hard-working  men. 
Neither  Harry  nor  Richard  has  translated  his  Latin  lesson. 
Either  you  must  take  back  what  you  have  just  said,  or 

we  can  no  longer  be  friends. 
Not  only  his  duty,  hut  also  his  inclination,  prompts  him 

to  be  kind  to  his  mother. 


10  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

15.    An  interjection  is  a  word  which  expresses  surprise,  anger, 
pleasure,  or  some  other  strong  feeling. 

Ex.    Pshaw  I  why  did  you  do  that? 
Hurrah  for  John  Grey  ! 

Alas  !  you  have  done  him  a  greater  injustice  than  you 
know. 

EXERCISE 


In  the  following  quotations,  tell  to  what  part  of  speech 
each  word  belongs : 

1.  At  my  coming  back,  I  shot  at  a  great  bird,  which  I  saw  upon 
a  tree  on  the  side  of  a  great  wood.  I  believe  mine  was  the  first  gun 
that  had  been  fired  there  since  the  creation  of  the  world.  —  Defoe. 

•     2.         Sweet  are  the  uses  of  adversity, 

Which,  like  the  toad,  ugly  and  venomous. 

Wears  yet  a  precious  jewel  in  his  head ; 

And  this  our  life,  exempt  from  public  haunt, 

Finds  tongues  in  trees,  books  in  the  running  brooks, 

Sermons  in  stones,  and  good  in  everything. 

Shakespeare. 

II 

Write  a  sentence  in  which  you  use  five  or  more  parts 
of  speech.     Tell  what  parts  of  speech  you  have  illustrated. 

Ill 
Write  out  the  following  exercises  : 

1.  A  sentence  in  which  you  use  a  collective  noun,  a  descriptive 
adjective,  a  transitive  verb,  and  an  adverb  of  place. 

2.  A  sentence  in  which  you  use  a  proper  noun,  a  numeral  adjective, 
and  a  personal  pronoun. 

3.  A  sentence  in  which  you  use  an  abstract  noun,  a  relative  pro- 
noun, and  a  subordinate  conjunction. 


A   REVIEW  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR  11 

IV 

In  each  blank  space  supply  a  conjunction,  state  what 
kind  it  is,  and  tell  what  it  connects; 

1.  Every  man  woijld  live  long ;  no  man  would  be  old. 

2.  Iron,  lead,  '        vgold  are  metals. 

3.  ^";  T  \  •    JVIary  ^^4^—  Jane  was  at  school  yesterday. 

4.  ' ■-  one  — —  the  other  of  us  must  give  way. 

5.  '^'^    she  had  told  the  truth, .all  would  have  been  well. 

6.  He  continued  his  story,  -;> —  his  listeners  were  singularly  pre- 
occupied   thoughtful. 


III.     CHANGES   IK   THE   FORMS  OF   PARTS 
OF   SPEECH 

16.  Inflection.  Inflection  is  the  change  in  the  forms  of 
words  usually  made  by  adding  terminations  to  the  stem 
or  root.  Greek,  Latin,  and  most  European  tongues  have 
many  inflections.  The  same  was  true  of  Old  English  ;  but 
the  language  has  long  since  dropped  most  of  the  inflec- 
tions, their  place  being  largely  supplied  for  nouns  and 
pronouns  by  prepositions,  and  for  verbs  by  auxiliaries. 
The  names  of  the  old  inflectional  forms  are  sometimes 
conveniently  used  to  designate  words  which  have  lost 
their  real  inflection,  but  which  retain  a  certain  agreement 
with  other  words.  For  instance,  the  objective  case  of 
nouns  is  as  truly  gone  from  the  language  as  the  dative. 
Yet  because  pronouns  have  an  objective  case,  nouns  to 
which  they  refer  still  have  a  certain  agreement  that  it  is 
convenient  to  call  the  objective  case.  Again,  the  relative 
who  has  no   personal  forms ;    yet  if  its  antecedent  is  a 


12  COMPOSITION  AND  BHETORIC 

personal  pronoun  its  agreement  with  that  determines  the 
person  of  the  verb  of  which  it  is  the  subject ;  as,  "  I  who 
speak,"  "  He  who  speaks."  Except  in  such  instances,  it  is 
well  to  avoid  the  use  of  terms  which  belong  more  properly 
to  the  grammar  of  the  highly  inflected  Old  English. 

Changes  in  Nouns  and  Pronouns 

17.  Almost  all  personal  forms  remaining  in  the  English  lan- 
guage belong  to  personal  pronouns  and  to  their  agreement  with 
other  words.  A  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  same  person  as 
the  noun  which  is  its  subject,  or  a  personal  pronoun  with 
the  noun  with  which  it  is  in  apposition;  but  the  noun 
seldom  changes  its  form  to  denote  person. 

The  pronoun  of  thejirst  person  denotes  the  speaker. 

Ex.    I,  my,  me;  we,  our,  us. 
The  pronoun  of  the  second  person  denotes  the  person  spoken  to. 

Ex.    Thou,  thy,  thee  ;  you,  your. 
The  pronoun  of  the  third  person  denotes  the  person  spoken  of. 

Ex.    He,  she,  it ;  they. 

18.  Number  is  the  form  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  which  shows 
whether  one  or  more  than  one  is  meant.  There  are  two  num- 
bers, singular  and  plural. 

The  singular  number  means  but  one. 

Ex.    Boy,  child,  ox ;  I,  thou,  he,  she,  it ;  this,  that. 
.  The  plural  means  more  than  one. 

Ex.    Boys,  children,  oxen;  we,  you,  they;  these,  those. 

Nu.mber  belongs  to  nouns,  a  few  pronouns,  the  demon- 
stratives this  and  that^  and  a  few  verbal  forms. 


A   REVIEW  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR  13 

19.    Some  important  facts  about  the  plurals  of  nouns. 

1.  Most   nouns   form   their  plurals  by   adding  8  to  the 
singular. 

Singular  Plural 

girl  girls 

book  books 

chair  chairs 

2.  Most  nouns  ending  in  s,  sA,  cA,  :r,  or  »  form  their  plurals 
by  adding  es  pronounced  as  another  syllable. 

Singular  Plural 

dress  dresses 

thrush  thrushes 

church  churches 

box  boxes 

adz  adzes 

3.  Most  nouns  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant^  form 
their  plurals  by  changing  y  to  i  and  adding  es. 

Singular  Plural 

lady  ladies 

baby  babies 

city  cities 

4.  A  few  nouns  ending  in  <?,  preceded  by  a  consonant^  form 
their  plurals  by  adding  es. 

Singular  Plural 

echo  echoes 

potato  potatoes 

cargo  cargoes 


14  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

5.  Most  nouns  ending  in  f  or  fe  form   their   plurals   by 
changing  /  to  v  and  adding  s  or  es. 

Singular  Plural 

knife  knives 

calf  calves 

staff  staves 

6.  Foreign  nouns  usually  retain  the  plurals  of  the  language 
from  which  they  come.     Many  of  them  also  have  a  plural 


s  or  es. 

Singular 

Plural 

cherub 

cherubim  or  cherubs 

phenomenon 

phenomena 

crisis 

crises 

alumnus 

alumni 

alumna 

alumnae 

syllabus 

syllabi  or  syllabuses 

7.  Letters,  figures,  and  other  signs  form  their  plurals  by 
adding  's. 

Ex.    A's,  7's,  X's,  R's. 

8.  Many  nouns  are  always  singular  or  always  plural. 

Ex.    Sing,     peace,  flesh,  electricity. 
I  Plu.      tidings,  scissors,  thanks,  riches. 

20.  Gender  is  the  form  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  which  distin- 
guishes sex.  There  are  three  genders  :  masculine,  feminine, 
and  neuter.  The  masculine  gender  denotes  male  beings, 
whether  men  or  animals ;  the  feminine  gender  denotes 
female  beings,  whether  women  or  animals ;  and  the  neuter 
gender  denotes  inanimate  objects.  Very  few  nouns  now 
change  their  form  to  show  gender;  yet  the  change  may 


A   REVIEW   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR  15 

be  seen  in  such  words  as  prince,  princess;  hero,  heroine; 
executor,  executrix.  There  are  many  nouns  which  include 
in  their  meaning  the  idea  of  male  or  female  sex,  or 
no  sex;  and  it  is  often  convenient  to  refer  to  these  as 
masculine,  feminine,  or  neuter  nouns,  especially  when 
they  stand  as  antecedents  of  pronouns  which  take  agree- 
ing gender  forms.  The  personal  pronoun  of  the  third 
person  singular  has  three  genders :  masculine  he,  feminine 
she,  neuter  it, 

21.  Case  is  the  form  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  which  shows  its 
construction.  There  are  three  cases :  nominative,  possessive, 
and  objective. 

Ex.    Nom.     he,  she,  they,  I,  we,  thou,  who. 

Poss.     my,  our,  thy,  your,  his,  their,  whose. 
Ohj.       me,  thee,  them,  whom. 

22.  Noun  constructions.  The  chief  noun  constructions 
are  shown  in  the  following  sentences. 

Ex.    The  man  is  old.     (Subject.) 

He  is  a  wan.     (Predicate  Nominative.) 

Mr.  Smith,  the  man  that  you  saw,  is  here.    (Appositive.) 

I  saw  a  man.     (Object  of  a  verb.) 

Speak  to  the  man.     (Object  of  a  preposition.) 

He  gave  the  man  a  dollar.     (Indirect  object.^) 

The  expeiience  has  made  him  a  wiser  man.     (Predicate 

Objective.) 
Man,  who  told  you  so  ?     (Nominative  Independent.) 
The  man  being  ill,  we  excused  him.     (Nominative  Abso- 
lute.) 

23.  Nominative  and  objective  cases.  The  noun  preserves 
the  same  form  in  all  of  the  constructions  just  given.     The 

1  The  Latin  dative. 


16  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

pronoun,  however,  has  the  nominative  form  when  used  as 
subject  or  as  predicate  term;  as,  "He  is  coming,"  "It  is 
he."  It  takes  the  objective  case  as  object  of  a  verb  or  a 
preposition.  In  the  absolute  participial  construction,  the 
nominative  case  is  used  in  modern  English ;  as,  "  He  being 
ill,  we  went  to  see  him";  "It  being  he,  we  ran  to  meet 
him."  This  construction  is  similar  to  that  found  in  the 
Latin  where  the  ablative  is  the  absolute  case.  Although 
logically/  correct  in  English^  the  nominative  absolute  is  not 
used  by  the  best  writers^  who  prefer  in  ordinary  cases  a  more 
direct  form  of  sentence. 

In  general,  an  appositive  takes  the  same  case  as  the 
word  which  it  explains,  and  the  noun  or  pronoun  that 
follows  the  verb  be  (or  any  copula)  has  the  same  case  as 
the  word  that  precedes  the  copula,  the  words  standing  in 
the  relation  of  subject  and  predicate  terms. 

24.  The  possessive  case.  The  possessive  case  is  the  form 
of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which  shows  possession. 

Ex.    Man's,  ladies'  ;   my,  your,  his,  their. 

The  possessive  singular  is  formed  by  adding  's  to  the 
noun.  This  possessive  ending  is  a  contraction  of  the 
old  Anglo-Saxon  termination  es  or  is.  In  general,  only 
the  names  of  persons  and  animals  have  possessive  cases, 
though  in  poetry,  and  rarely  in  prose,  a  possessive  sign  is 
added  to  other  nouns  as  well.  If  the  singular  noun  ends 
in  8,  usage  varies  in  the  form  of  the  possessive.  Some 
writers  add  the  apostrophe  only,  but  others  add  's,  except 
in  a  few  instances,  such  as  "  Moses'  law  "  and  "  for  Jesus' 
sake." 


A   REVIEW  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  17 

The  possessive  plural  of  nouns  is  formed  by  adding  sim- 
ply an  apostrophe  when  the  plural  ends  in  «.  When  it 
ends  in  some  other  letter, '«  is  added ;  as,  children  8. 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  the  possessives  of  pronouns 
no  apostroplie  is  used.  The  secondary  forms,  mine^  theirs^ 
etc.,  are  generally  used  without  the  noun  and  may  be  used 
in  either  the  nominative  or  the  objective  case. 

Ex.    This  book  is  mine.     (Predicate  Xominative.) 

They  study  from  theirs.     (Object  of  Preposition.) 

If  several  nouns  indicate  joint  possession,  the  possessive 
sign  should  be  used  with  the  last  noun  only. 

Ex.    They  have  a  special  sale  of  gloves  at  Jordan  &  Marsh's. 

If  separate  possession  is  implied,  each  noun  should  take 
the  sign  of  the  possessive. 

Ex.    ^Ir.  Grant's  and  Mr.  Allen's  houses  were  both  struck  by 
lightning  to-day. 
She  refused  to  listen  to  her  parents'  or  to  her  teacher's 
advice. 

EXERCISE 

I 

In  each  blank  space,  supply  appropriately  is  or  are : 

1.  Oats now  being  harvested. 

2.  "  Horses  " of  the  plural  number,  because  it  means  more 

than  one. 

3.    there  any  news  in  the  city? 

4.  Great  pains taken  to  preserve  secrecy. 

5.  The  whereabouts  of  his  family not  known. 

•  6.    The  wages  of  sin death. 

7.  Physics interesting  to  study. 

8.    my  scissors  in  your  workbasket  ? 

9.  Measles not  commonly  a  dangerous  disease. 

10.    Tll!e  phenomena most  strange. 


18  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

II 

In  each  blank  space,  supply  the  possessive  singular  or 
plural  of  some  appropriate  noun : 

1.   diamonds  are  of  priceless  value. 

2.  The  writings  of sister  have  never  been  published. 

3.  Mrs.  B.  has  just  sold library  at  auction. 

4.  You  remember having  painted  a  tea-set  for  her  sister, 

do  you  not  ? 

5.  I  cannot  bear  to  think  of being  left  alone  in  the  world, 

for  they  seem  so  helpless. 

Ill 

Use  the  plurals  of  the  following  words  in  sentences  of 
your  own : 

Cherub,  spoonful,  man-servant,  parenthesis,  sheep,  fish,  alumnus, 
Miss  Clark,  talisman,  princess,  zero,  heathen. 

IV 

In  each  blank  space,  supply  the  correct  case  of  some 
pronoun : 

1.  My  brother  did  fully  as  well  as 

2.  What  were  you  and talking  about  ? 

3.  My  mother  and have  gone  to  the  city. 

4.    respectfully. 

5.  The  pupil's  progress  will  depend  largely  upon  being 

diligent  in  practice. 

6.  That  was  the  largest  congregation ever  gathered  in  the 

church. 

7.    did  you  say  called  this  afternoon  ? 

8.   that  seek  shall  find. 

9.  Such  persons  as are  not  fit  associates  for  you. 

10.   does  she  look  like  ? 

11.   do  you  take  me  to  be  ? 


A   REVIEW   OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMA II  19 

12.  Do  you  think  it  was -?     It  might  have  been  who 

(lid  it. 

13.  Is  that  tli<'  (lo^^  -__-  you  bought  of  Fred? 

14.  Between  you  and I  don't  believe  a  word  of  it. 

15.  The  strikers, went  out  six  months  ago,  are  now  forced  to 

go  back  to  work  without  extra  pay. 

16.    do  you  think  1  am  ? 

17.  Is  it whom  you  wish  to  see? 

18.  I  do  not  know  whether  those  strangers  are  the  Grahams  ;  but 
I  suppose  it  is . 

19.  The  Colonel's  horse has  gone  lame  is  his  favorite. 

20.  AVas  it  you  or  the  wind shut  the  door  ? 

21.  Who  is  there  ?     It 's  only . 

—52.    The  old  man  left  his  fortune  to  those he  thought  were 

his  friends. 

23.  What  do  you  think  of studying  Latin? 

24.  Has  everybody  solved examples  ? 

25.  If  any  one  is  there,  let answer. 

Verbs 

25.  The  verb  is  one  of  the  most  important  parts  of 
speech  and  undergoes  many  changes  in  form  to  express 
different  meanings.  Transitive  verbs  have  voice,  mood, 
tense,  person,  and  numl)er.  Intransitive  verbs  have  mood, 
tense,  person,  and  number.  Three  forms  of  the  verb  — 
the  present,  the  past,  and  the  past  participle  —  are  called 
principal  parts,  because  from  these  all  other  forms  are 
made  regularly  by  the  use  of  terminations  and  auxiliaries. 

26.  Voice  is  the  form  of  a  transitive  verb  which  shows  whether 
the  actor  or  the  one  acted  upon  is  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 
When  a  verb  is  changed  from  the  active  to  the  passive 
voice,  the  object  of  the  active  verb  becomes  the  subject  of 


20  '  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

the  passiv^e  verb,  and  the  subject  of  the  active  verb  usually 
becomes  the  object  of  the  preposition  %. 

Ex.    The  teacher  f^are  us  a  long  lesson.     (Active.) 

A  long  lesson  was  given  us  by  the  teacher.     (Passive.) 

The  passive  voice  is  always  a  verb  phrase,  made  by  the 
past  participle  with  some  form  of  the  verb  be» 

Ex.    It  is  finished. 

He  had  been  captured. 

27.  Mood  is  the  form  of  a  verb  which  represents  the  action  as 
an  actual  fact,  a  possibility,  a  condition,  or  a  command.  There 
are  three  moods :  indicative,  subjunctive,  and  imperative.^ 

1.  The  indicative  mood  asserts  or  assumes  something 
as  a  fact  or  is  used  to  ask  a  question. 

Ex.    Goes,  has  sung,  will  ride. 

2.  In  Old  English,  special  verb  forms  called  the  subjunc- 
tive mood  were  common,  and  they  are  still  found  in  poetry 
and  solemn  prose.  In  ordinary  prose  the  forms  are  rare, 
and  in  conversation  they  are  scarcely  ever  heard.  The 
subjunctive  is  most  commonly  found  in  clauses  beginning 
with  if;  the  if  is,  however,  no  part  of  the  subjunctive 
form.  Although  in  many  cases  where  the  subjunctive  was 
formerly  used,  the  indicative  is  now  employed,  yet  the  sub- 
junctive were  is  still  the  only  correct  verb  in  such  purely 
hypothetical  clauses  as,  "  If  I  were  in  your  place."  The 
subjunctive  be  is  also  the  proper  form  in  the  hypothesis 
of  a  scientific  demonstration ;  as,  "  If  the  triangle  A  be 
placed  on  the  triangle  ^." 

1  Some  grammarians  still  treat  the  potential  form  as  a  mood ;  but  the 
general  tendency  is  to  give  it  separate  treatment. 


A   REVIEW  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  21 

Use  of  the  subjunctive  without  if. 

(1)  The  subjunctive  is  often  used  in  tciit/ies  or  prayers. 

Ex.    God  fur</ire  him  !     The  Lord  he  with  him  !     O,  that 
my  brother  were  here ! 

(2)  Condition   is    sometimes   expressed    by   the    subjunctive 
mood. 

Ex.    Were  my  brother  liere,  he  would  protect  me. 

Had  you  been  a  man,  you  would  not  liave  run  away. 

3.  The  imperative  mood  is  the  form  of  a  verb  which 
expresses  command. 

Ex.    Go  away. 

Shut  the  door. 

Be  killed  at  your  post  rather  than  run  away. 

The  subject  of  a  verb  in  the  imperative  mood  is  expressed 
only  when  it  is  emphatic. 

Ex.    Go  thou  and  do  likewise. 

4.  The  so-called  potential  mood  consists  of  potential 
verb  phrases  which  express  ability,  possibility,  obligation, 
or  necessity.  They  are  formed  by  the  use  of  the  auxiliary 
verbs  may^  can^  must,  might.,  could,  would,  or  should,  with 
the  infinitive  without  to. 

May  is  used  to  show  that  the  subject  is  permitted  to  do  some- 
thing. 

Ex.    You  may  cut  down  that  tree  if  you  wish. 
May  often  indicates  possibility  or  doubtful  intention. 

Ex.    I  may  go  to  New  York  to-morrow. 
Can  is  used  to  show  that  the  subject  is  able  to  do  something. 
Ex.   You    can    cut    down    that   tree    if    you    work    long 
enough. 


22  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

Must  shows  necessity  or  obligation. 

Ex.    Unselfish  people  must  think  of  themselves  last. 
You  must  not  disobey  the  law. 

Note.  —  Ought  expresses  moral  obligation  as  distinguished 
from  mere  necessity. 

Ex.    Children  oiujht  to  obey  their  parents. 

5.  Three  other  verb  forms,  not  named  as  moods,  are  yet 
so  important  as  to  need  special  study.  These  are  partioi- 
ples^  infinitives,  and  verbal  nouns  in  irig. 

A  participle  is  the  form  of  a  verb  which  partakes  of  the  nature 
of  an  adjective.  There  are  two  simple  participles :  present 
active  and  past.  The  chief  use  of  the  past  participle  is 
in  making  verb  phrases.  When  used  in  a  passive  sense, 
it  can  have  an  adjective  use.  There  are  also  phrase 
participles. 

Ex.    Seeing  (present  active). 
Seen  (past). 
Having  been  seen  (perfect  passive). 

An  infinitive  is  the  form  of  a  verb  which  partakes  of  the  nature 
of  a  noun.  The  chief  infinitive  is  the  name  of  the  verb, 
preceded  by  to^  which  is  called  the  sig^i  of  the  infinitive. 
There  are  also  phrase  infinitives. 

Ex.    To  see  (present  active). 

To  have  seen  (perfect  active). 
To  be  seen  (j^resent  passive). 
To  have  been  seen  (perfect  passive). 

Verbal  nouns  in  ing  have  the  form  of  the  present  partici- 
ple, and  are  similar  in  some  of  their  constructions  to  the 
infinitive. 

Ex.    Rowing  is  good  exercise. 


A    JiEVIEW  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  23 

EXERCISE 


1.  State  the  voice,  mood,  or  form  of  every  verb  or  verb 
phrase  in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  The  Nile  doej^not  always  j4se  on  the  same  day  each  year. 

2.  Listen^  lords  and  ladies  gay  ! 

3.  She  might^have  held  back  a  little  longer. 

4.  Is  it  possible  that  the  mistake  i^yjiave  been  made  by  you? 

5.  He  looks  as  if  he  \verfi  -afraid. 

6.  No  man  cried,  "  God  save  him  1 " 

7.  May  I  come  back  to  tell  you  the  result  ? 

8.  He"  returned  from  the  university  with  a  store  of  learning 
that  miglit  have  puzzled  a  doctor,  and  an  amount  of  ignorance  of 
whicli  a  schoolboy  would  have  been  ashamed. 

9.  Take  heed  lest  thou  fall. 

10.    Kmg  though  he  be,  he  may  be  weak. 


H 

y      Classify,  as  on  the  preceding  page,   all  the  participles 
and  infinitives  found  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  She   seemed  a  creature  fresh  from   the   hand  of   God  and 
waiting  for  the  breath  of  life. 

2.  The  President,  after  having  revie^yed.  the  troops,  started  on  a 
trip  to  California. 

^3.    It  ought  to  have  been  enough  to  satisfy  him,  ])ut  it  was  not. 

4.  To  be  seen  on  the  Parade  before  ten  o'clock  is  not  good  form. 

5.  To  err  is'  human  ;  to  forgive,  divine. 

28.  Tense  is  the  form  of  a  verb  which  shows  the  time  of 
the  action.  It  sometimes  expresses  also  completeness  or 
incompleteness. 


24 


COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


1.  The  indicative  mood  has  six  tenses  :  present,  past, 
future,  present  perfect,  past  perfect,  future  perfect.  If 
the  verb  is  transitive,  six  corresponding  tenses  are  found 
in  the  passive  voice. 


Active 
Present  tell  or  tells 

is  or  are  telling 
Past  told 

or  was  telling 
Future  shall  or  will  tell 

Pres.  Perf.  has  or  have  told 

has  or  have  been  tell- 
ing 
Past  Perf.     had  told 
Fut.  Perf.     shall  or  will  have  told 


Passive 

Present         am,  is,  or  are  told 

Past  was  or  were  told 

Future  shall  or  will  be  told 

Pres.  Perf.   has  o?-  have  been  told 


Past  Perf.    had  been  told 
Fut.  Perf.    shall    or    will 
been  told 


have 


It  is  important  to  distinguish  carefully  the  uses  of  shall 
and  will.  In  the  future  and  future  perfect  tenses,  to 
express  futurity^  we  use  shall  in  the  first  person  and  ivill 
in  the  second  and  third  persons.  To  express  promise,  pur- 
pose, determination,  obligation,  or  action  that  the  speaker 
meayis  to  control,  we  use  ^vill  in  the  first  person  and  shall 
in  the  second  and  third  persons  (see  §  217,  5). 

2.  The  verb  he  lias  two  subjunctive  tense  forms,  he  and 
were,  called  present  and  past,  but  not  limited  in  time 
meaning.  Other  verbs  have  a  present  subjunctive  in  the 
third  person  singular ;  as,  "If  it  rain "  :  also  a  perfect ; 
as,  "If  he  have  done  it":  and  some  progressive  forms; 
as,  "  If  he  be  trying,"  "  If  he  were  trying." 

3.'  The  imperative  mood  has  but  one  tense,  called  the 
present,  Avhich  conveys  the  idea  of  futurity.     If  the  verb 


A    REVIEW  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 


25 


is  transitive,  a  corresponding  tense  is  sometimes  found  in 
the  passive  voice. 

Active.        RcroncUc  yourselveH  to  liw  inevitable. 
Passice.     Be  reconciled  to  the  inevitable. 


4.  The  potential  form  has  four  tenses,  which,  however, 
do  not  show  time  exactly  in  the  way  that  their  names 
would  indicate.  These  tenses  are  called  present,  past, 
present  perfect,  and  past  perfect ;  but  in  practice,  the  so- 
called  present  may  refer  to  the  future,  the  so-called  past 
may  refer  to  the  present  or  the  future,  etc.  If  the  verb 
is  transitive,  four  corresponding  tenses  are  found  in  the 
passive  voice. 


Active 


Present 


Past 


may 

Pres.  Per/,  can 

must 

might 

^^     ^    could 

Past  Per/.  , , 

^      would 

should 


have  told 


have  told 


Present 


Past 


Passive 
may 
can 

mu'st     J 
might 
could 
would 
should 


be  told 


be  told 


may 

Pres.  Pevf.  can 

must 

might 

could 

Past  Per/.  , , 

*^      would 

should 


have  been 
told 

have  been 
told 


29.  Person  and  number.  The  only  person  and  number 
forms  now  in  use  are  those  of  the  third  person  singular; 
as,  "He  sees,"  "He  seeth,"  and  the  special  forms  used 
with  thou  in  all  moods  and  tenses. 


26  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISE 
I 

Give  the  tense^  person^  and  number  of  all  the  verbs  found 
in  the  first  exercise  on  page  23. 

II 

In  the  blank  spaces  supply  appropriate  verbs  or  verb 
phrases,  being  careful  to  make  each  of  these  agree  with 
its  subject  in  person  and  number : 

1.  Not  a  line  of  the  lectures beforehand. 

2.  Many  a  man sad  recollections  of  his  childhood. 

3.  No  wife,  no  mother,  no  child there  to  comfort  him. 

4.  I on  one  side  of  the  street,  and  you on  the  other. 

5.  Of  what  nationality each  of  your  parents  ? 

6.    it possible  that  we here  six  weeks  ? 

7.  He not me  favorably ;  he too  much. 

8.  I very  sorry  that  they . 

9.  Our  teacher us  that  the  air up  of  two  gases. 

10.  What  did  you  say  this  lady's  name V 

III 
In  each  blank  space,  supply  shall  or  will : 

1.    I  put  more  wood  into  the  stove  ? 

2.  I be  drowned ;  nobody help  me. 

3.  It be  there  when  you  need  it. 

4.    you  be  a  candidate  ? 

5.  He  insists  that  the  pupils be  orderly  and  attentive. 

IV 

Give  the  principal  parts  of  the  following  verbs  :  hit, 
be,  learn,  teach,  spoil,  bear,  bore,  bid,  choose,  do,  eat,  go, 
hide,  sing,  take,  wear,  write,  forget,  put,  arise. 


A  REVIEW  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR  27 

V 
In  each  blank  space,  supply  the  past  tense  of  sit  or  set  : 

1.  Hawthorne  kept  many  notebooks,  in  which   he  down 

things  that  he  wished  to  remember. 

2.  Neighbor  Green  came  in  and awhile. 

3.  He  always apart  one-tenth  of  his  income  to  give  to  the 

Lord. 

4.  Father old  Speckle  on  thirteen  eggs,  and  there  she 

two  weeks. 

5.  Captain  Barnes  showed  us  how  the  tide in  up  the  creek. 

VI 

In  each  blank  space,  supply  the  presefit  perfect  tense  of 
the  verb  lie  (to  recline),  lie  (to  tell  a  falsehood),  or  lai/ 
(to  place)  : 

1.  Mother down  on  the  sofa. 

2.  Some  one about  the  disappearance  of  the  book. 

3.  Trouble heavily  on  his  heart. 

4.  The  rain the  dust. 

5.  The  Indian in  wait  for  several  days. 

VII 

In  each  blank  space,  supply  the  past  or  the  present  per- 
fect of  flee^  fly^  or  flow  : 

1.  The  Nile over  its  banks. 

2.  The  horse from  the  presence  of  the  camel. 

3.  And  still  the  river on. 

4.  The  terrified  savages to  the  mountains. 

5.  They  find  that  the  feathered  prisoner .^ 

VIII 

Bring  to  the  class  from  your  own  reading  sentences 
containing  the  following  verb  forms  : 


28  COMPOSITION-  AND  RHETORIC 

1.  Present  subjunctive,  active,  third  person,  singular. 

2.  Past  suV)junctive  of  the  verb  he. 

3.  Future  perfect  indicative. 

4.  Future  indicative,  passive. 

5.  Past  potential,  active. 

IX 

Write  sentences  of  your  own  containing  the  following 
verb  forms: 

1.  Present  perfect  indicative,  active. 

2.  Past  perfect  indicative,  passive. 

3.  Present  potential,  active. 

4.  Past  perfect  potential,  passive. 

5.  Imperative. 

6.  Past  participle. 

7.  Past  passive  participle  used  as  an  adjective. 

8.  Present  progressive  active  infinitive. 

9.  Perfect  active  infinitive. 
10.  Perfect  passive  infinitive. 

30.  Changes  in  adjectives  and  adverbs.  With  the  exception 
of  the  number  forms  of  tliis  and  that^  there  are  no  adjective 
and  adverbial  inflections  except  comparison. 

31.  Degrees  of  comparison.  There  are  three  degrees  of  com- 
parison: positive^  coynparative,  and  superlative. 

The  positive  degree  of  the  adjective  names  the  quality  with- 
out reference  to  any  other  object. 

Ex.    A  small  book  is  on  the  table. 

The  comparative  degree  of  an  adjective  shows  that  one  of  two 
objects  has  more  or  less  of  a  certain  quality  than  the  other. 
Ex.    This  boy  is  less  ambitious  than  his  brother. 

The  superlative  degree  of  an  adjective  shows  the  highest  or 
loivest  degree  of  a  quality  found  in  a  group  of  objects. 
Ex.    John  has  brought  me  the  largest  apple  I  ever  saw. 


A    REVIEW  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 


29 


32.    Some  important  facts  about  comparison. 

1.  Most  adjectives  aiul  some  adverbs  are  compared  by 
adding  er  and  est  to  the  positive. 


OSITIVE 

Comparative 

Superlative 

small 

smaller 

smallest 

hanl 

harder 

hardest 

dear 

dearer 

dearest 

fast 

faster 

fastest 

near 

nearer 

nearest 

2.  Some    adjectives   and    most   adverbs   are    compared 
by  means  of  7nore  and  most. 


Positive 

Comparative 

Superlative 

unjust 

more  unjust 

most  unjust 

unkind 

more  unkind 

most  unkind 

swiftly 

more  swiftly 

most  swiftly 

quickly 

more  (quickly 

most  quickly 

3.  Some    ai 

iljectives   and  adverbs 

are   irregularly  com- 

pared. 

Positive 

Comparative 

Superlative 

good 

better 

best 

bad 

worse 

worst 

much  ") 
many  ) 

more 

most 

ill        1 
badly  J 

worse 

worst 

well 

better 

best 

4.  Many  adjectives  and  adverbs,  from  their  very  mean- 
ing, usually  have  no  comparison. 

Ex.     Square,  round,  perpendicular,  unique,  completely,  univer- 
sally. 


30  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISE 
I 

In   each  blank  space,   supply   the  comparative  or  the 
superlative  degree  of  some  appropriate  adjective : 

1.  Of  two  evils  choose  the . 

2.  My  mother  is  the  -^ of  five  sisters. 

3.  Which  is  thet—:—  of  the  two  ? 

4.  The^- —  of  the  twins  is  the . 

5.  Which  is  th^ ,  wealth  or  health  ? 

Note.  —  After  each  adjective  that  is  inserted  supply  any  connecting  words 
that  may  be  needed. 

6.  Iron  is  the all  the  metals. 

7.  Our  new  minister  is  — —  any  preacher  we  ever  had. 

8.  St.  Paul's  is  the of  all  the  London  churcheer.v 

9.  This  picture  is to  me  than  all  others. 

10.    The  climate  of  Colorado  is  said  to  be  the in  the  United 

States. 

II 

Supply  suitable  predicate  adjectives  : 

1.  These  beautiful  roses  smell  so . 

2.  How those  currants  taste  ! 

3.  How this  velvet  feels  I 

4.  How  -— -^  the  lake  appears  in  the  moonlight ! 

5.  The  sky  looks ^'^o-night. 

Ill 

In  the  following  sentences  supi^^ly  this^  that,  these,  or 
those  : 

1.  Do  you  like sort  of  collar  ? 

2.   kind  of  tree  will  be  ^een  the  year  round. 

3.  You  have  been  asleep two  hours. 

4.  iV     books  that  you  sent  me  yesterday  are  very  interesting. 

5.   flowers  tha.t  you  have  in  your  hand  are  very  fragrant. 


A   REVIEW  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  31 

IV 

In  the  following  statements,  supply  the  definite  or  the 
indefinite  article : 

1.  There  is    ^v    pleasure  in  — r—  pathless  woods. 

2.  On  one  side  of  house  extends  Aa     woody  dell,  along 

which  babbles  ■['--    small  brook. 

3.  Such     C\_one  may  be  said  to  be universal  genius. 

4.  Is  that  A=^  history  or  -v—  historical  novel  that  you  are 
readingVJ^^ 

5.  '^ —  rose  is  my  favorite  flower. 

6.  yvi'l'dwl  ifMAvt-bird  of  wisdom. 

7.  '  V--..  lion  is  JULtJving  of  beasts. 

8.  tJriah  Ileep  professed  to  have  — ^—  humble  spirit. 

9.  The  society  appointed  three  new  officers  :^^  -  president,  -?^ 
secretary,  and  -c^?-^  treasurer. 

,  h  10.    The  English  language  derives  many  words  from Latin, 

^J^  Frenchj-^^^-^'ltalian,  and^A--^  Greek. 


F'orm  adverbs  from  the  following  adjectives,  and  use 
each  adverb  in  a  sentence : 

Plain,  gentle,  remarkable,  noisy,  courageous,  civil,  splendid. 

VI 

Use  the  comparative  or  the  superlative  degree  of  the 
following  adverbs  in  statements  of  your  own : 

Politely,  abruptly,  calmly,  carefully,  violently,  rapidly. 

VII 

In  the  following  sentences,  (1)  tell  what  each  adverb 
modifies ;  (2)  tell  to  what  class  it  belongs ;  (3)  compare  it, 
if  it  can  be  compared : 


32  COMPOSITION  AND   lillETORIC 

1.  This  very  cutting  remark  liurt  Helen  cruelly. 

2.  I  diml^-isaw  an  iceberg  before  me,  so  near  that  it  seemed  as 
if  I  could  touch  it. 

3.  Be  particularly  careful  not  to  stumble  over  that  root  which 
trips  so  many  people. 

4.  Though  she  told  her  distress  very  frankly,  she  accepted  help 
most  reluctantly. 

6.  She  speaks  too  fast  and Joo  low. 

6.  It  would  ill  become  me  to  boast  of  my  success. 

7.  The  statement  is  more  true  than  pleasant. 

8.  He  seems  the  le£ist_wo£thy  of  all  the  candidates. 

9.  The  thought  lay  uppermost  in  his  mind. 

10.    Nearly  all  the  pupils  have  finished ;  John  went  first. 
>^  — -  

Prepositions,  Con.junctions,  and  Interjections 

33.  Prepositions,  co}iju7ietions,  and  interjections  do  not 
change  their  form. 

34.  Summary  of  important  grammatical  principles.  After  this 
review  of  the  names  of  the  parts  of  speech  and  the  changes 
in  their  forms,  the  following  summary  will  aid  in  correcting 
the  examples  of  common  errors  which  follow  on  page  33. 

1 .  The  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case ;  the  subject  of 
an  infinitive  is  in  the  objective  case. 

2.  A  predicate  noun  or  pronoun  after  the  verb  he,  or  any  other 
copulative  verb,  is  in  the  same  case  as  the  subject  of  that  verb. 

3.  Pronouns  agree  with  their  antecedents  ifl  person,  number,  and 
gender. 

4.  Predicate  adjectives  should  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
adverbs. 

5.  Verbs  agree  with  their  subjects  in  person  and  number. 

Do  not  use  any  word  that  has  no  definite  or  necessary 
value  in  a  sentence. 

Use  every  word  that  is  needed  to  make  clear  the  con- 
struction of  the  other  words  in  a  sentence. 


A  REVIEW  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR  33 

EXERCISE 

I 

Correct  the  following  sentences  by  the  rules  which 
have  just  been  summarized,  using  common  sense  where 
no  special  rules  seem  to  apply : 

1.  Your  48  look  just  like  7s. 

2.  That  style  of  warfare  is  of  all  others  most  barbarous. 

3.  A  placid  river  winds  between  the  old  and  new  plantation. 

4.  Many  a  farewell  tear  were  shed. 

5.  The  sum  of  these  angles  are  180  degrees. 

6.  This  sentence  sounds  rather  queerly,  don't  it  ? 

7.  They  look  something  alike,  to. 

8.  Take  the  three  first  examples  in  percentage. 

9.  Teacher,  can  I  please  speak  to  Mary  ? 

10.  Who  did  the  youngest  of  your  two  cousins  marry? 

11.  What  did  you  say  was  the  capital  of  Kansas  ? 

12.  That  seems  to  be  the  most  universal  opinion. 

13.  Among  our  saddest  losses  we  count  friendships  which  we  once 
believed  would  never  have  grown  cold. 

14.  The  indulgent  father  promised  that  he  should  think  over 
the  plan. 

15.  I  have  heard  that  story  of  her's  no  less  than  a  dozen  times. 

16.  Of  these  four  captains,  neither  showed  any  litness  for  the 
place. 

17.  Three  propositions  were  made,  either  of  which  would  have 
suited  me. 

18.  Either  you  or  I  are  in  the  wrong, 

19.  Let's  you  and  I  look  over  these  books. 

20.  The  poet  has  his  faults,  which  any  one  professing  to  give  a 
critical  estimate  of  his  works  are  bound  to  point  out. 

21.  Some  public  man  was  mentioned;   I  forget  whom. 

22.  Every  one  was  dressed  alike. 

23.  He  thinks  he  knows  more  than  anybody. 

24.  She  watches  me  like  a  cat  watches  a  mouse. 


34  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

n 

Fill  appropriately  the  blanks  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Here 's egg  that by  the  speckled  hen.     

it  little  ? 

2.  What  made  me  think  of  William  Tell  was going  by  the 

statue  of and son. 

3.  The  pen just  where  he  had it. 

4.  It  was  the  ball we  had  lost. 

5.  Don't  feel  so ;  it 's  done enough  for  anybody. 

6.  How  different  this  village  is what  I  expected  1 

7.    I  bring  you  a  glass  of  water  ? 

8.  On  the  table  there  neatly  and  handily  arranged  two 

long  pipes. 

9.  "  No," I,  "  T  knew  it  was the  minute  I her." 

10.   should  I  see my  old  friend,  Mr.  Brown  ? 

11.  You  eat  it  with  a  spoon you  would  a  custard. 

12.    eagle  is emblem  of  our  glorious  Union. 

13.  A  beautiful  blue  lake  hid  among  the  mountains. 

14.  I  will  get  the  prize  by  some  means  or . 

15.  No  memoranda  of  the  transaction kept. 

16.  Scarcely  had  he  spoken the  fairy  disappeared. 

17.  T-i-o-n pronounced  shun. 

18.  Where  has  your  uncle ?     He  is Troy  to-day. 

19.  Her  eyes  were  positively  blazing,  she  was angry. 

20.  We  reached  home  and after  all  our  misfortunes. 

21.  Mathematics very  difficult  for  me. 

22.  The  shed  is  built  with  twenty-two posts. 

23.  I  am  one  of  those  who  cannot  describe  what do  not  see. 

24.  The  oldest  son  is  a  lad I  think  deserves  encouragement. 

25.  Between  you  and ,  I  do  not  like  that  man. 

26.  If  any  one  does  not  know  the  reason, should  ask. 

27.  I  have  no  doubt he  can  help  you. 

28.   you  go  to  the  post-office  to-day  ? 

29.  The  man  is  in feeble  state  that  he hardly  stand  up. 

30.  Try remember  all  these  hints.  y^ 


A  REVIEW  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  35 

IV.     PHRASES 

35.  We  have  been  studying  single  words  and  their 
uses  in  sentences.  Now  we  turn  to  various  important 
groups  of  words,  called  phrases.  A  group  of  closely  connected 
words  that  does  not  contain  a  subject  and  a  predicate  is  called  a 
phrase.  It  is  often  used  as  the  equivalent  of  a  single  part  of 
speech.  Phrases  are  named  from  their  form  or  from  their 
use.  The  same  phrase  may  have  two  names,  one  from  its 
form  and  one  from  its  use. 

36.  Kinds  of  phrases  named  from  their  form.  The  most 
important  phrases  named  from  their  form  are  preposi- 
tional, participial,  or  infinitive  phrases. 

1.  A  prepositional  phrase  is  a  phrase  introduced  by 
a  preposition. 

Ex.    You  are  in  the  ivay. 

The  ship  is  at  the  dock. 

The  guests  strolled  throuyh  the  woods. 

2.  A  participial  phrase  is  a  phrase  introduced  by  a 
participle. 

Ex.   !Mr.  Carr,  seeing  his  nephew  in  the  room,  reproached  him 
bitterly. 
The  man,  having  finished  his  work,  went  home. 
The  work  Just  completed  is  very  valuable. 

3.  An  infinitive  phrade  is  a  phrase  introduced  by  an 
infinitive. 

Ex.    All  that  the  policeman  wants  is  to  capture  the  thief. 

To  hear  his  lectures  on  Democracy  would  make  one  think 

him  a  true  patriot. 
He  told  the  boy  to  shut  the  door. 


36  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

37.  Kinds  of  phrases  named  from  their  use.  Phrases  named 
from  their  use  are  noun,  adjective,  or  adverbial  phrases. 

1.  A  phrase  having  the  use  of  a  noun  is  called  a  noun 
phrase.     An  infinitive  phrase  is  often  a  noun  phrase. 

Ex.    To  hear  his  lectures  on  Democracy  would  make  one  think 
him  a  true  patriot.     (Subject  of  a  verb.)  ^ 

All   that  the  policeman    wants  is    to  capture   the  thief. 

(Predicate  nominative.) 
He  told  the  boy  to  shut  the  door.     (Object  of  verb.) 

2.  A  phrase  having  the  use  of  an  adjective  is  called  an 
adjective  phrase.  Prepositional  j^hrases  and  participial 
phrases  may  be  used  as  adjective  phrases. 

Ex.    The  keeper  of  the  lighthouse  will  tell  you  some  interesting 
stories.     (Prepositional  adjective  phrase.) 
That  large  pear,  ripening  on  the  tree,  looks  very  tempting. 
(Participial  adjective  phrase.) 

3.  A  phrase  having  the  use  of  an  adverb  is  called  an 
adverbial  phrase.  Prepositional  phrases  may  be  used  as 
adverbial  phrases. 

Ex.    Many   men   risk  their   health    by    ocericorJc.      (Preposi- 
tional adverbial  phrase.) 

/  EXERCISE 

^^  I 

In  the  sentences  below,  (1)  point  out  all  the  phrases  ; 
(2)  name  them  according  to  form  and  use ;  (3)  tell  what 
each  phrase  limits  : 

1.  This  ring  contains  a  diamond  from  Australia  and  a  pearl  from 
Persia. 

2.  The  wife  of  the  distinguished  lecturer  accompanied  him  to 
the  city. 


A   REVIEW  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  37 

3.  After  a  good  night's  rest,  lie  rose  in  the  morning  with  a  mind 
more  at  ease.  """^         "" 

4.  All  strangers  speak  of  the  ferocity  of  the^uire's  dog. 

5.  Under  no  consideration  should  you  point  the  muzzle  of  a 
loaded  gun  at  yourself  or  at  any  other  pei»on. 

6.  Hearing  the  clock  strike,  he  was  reminded  of  the  lateness  of 
the  hour. 

7.  The   man  running  down  the  street  looks  like  a  foreigner  in 
distress. 

8.  Sunu'  men's  sole  ambition  is  to  acquire  wealth. 

9.  The  general  commanded  his  soldiers  to  advance. 

10.    Once  to  every  man  and  nation  comes  the  moment  to  decide 
In  the  strife  of  Truth  with  Falsehood  for  the  good  or  evil  side. 

LOWKLL. 

II 

Supply  whatever   is   necessary  to   make  five   complete 
sentences  containing  various  kinds  of  phrases : 

1.    Boy coasting hill bicycle stone threw 

head. 


2.  Yacht  race Mv.  Coughlin's  "  Triton  " rudder 

rocks Boar's  Head. 

3.  Girls Clover  Club voted Riverside  Park 

Lake  Shawsheen picnic. 

4.  Graduation high  school Stanley  Hall Tuesday 

evening Thornton  Bulletin. 

5.  Sunnyside    Golf    Club victorious .close    match 

club Greenwood. 


Y.     CLAUSES 

38.  A  clause  is  a  part  of  a  sentence  which  contains  a  subject 
and  a  predicate.  A  clause  should  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  a  phrase,  which  has  no  finite  verb  with  its  subject, 
and,  therefore,  asserts  nothing. 


38  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

39.  Kinds  of  clauses  named  from  their  importance.  Clauses 
are  named  from  their  rank  in  the  sentence  or  from  their 
use.  Kinds  of  clauses  named  from  their  rank  are  prin- 
cipal (or  independent)  clauses  and  subordinate  (or 
dependent)  clauses. 

1.  A  principal  (or  independent)  clause  is  a  clause  that, 
taken  by  itself,  makes  a  complete  statement. 

Ex.    The  horse  ran  moay  and  the  occupants  of  the  carriage  were 
throw7i  out. 
When  the  horse  ran  away,  the  occupants  of  the  carriage 
ivere  thrown  out. 

2.  A  subordinate  (or  dependent)  clause  is  a  clause 
which  does  not  make  complete  sense  if  separated  from 
the  clause  on  which  it  depends. 

Ex.    If  you  expect  to  reach  the  State  House  by  one  o'clock,  you 
will  have  to  hurry. 
He  that  icill  not  work  shall  not  eat. 

40.  Kinds  of  clauses  named  from  their  use.  Subordinate 
clauses  named  from  their  use  are  noun,  adjective,  or 
adverbial  clauses. 

1.  A  noun  clause  may  be  used  — 
As  subject  of  a  finite  verb. 

Ex.    That  Mr.  Swan  committed   the  murder  will  be  proved 
at  the  trial. 
In  apposition  with  the  subject  or  the  object  of  a  finite  verb. 
Ex.    The  maxim,    "  Honesty  is  the    best  policy,"  is    a  very 
good  one.     (Appositive  with  subject.) 
Always  heed  the  maxim,   "  Honesty  is  the  best  policy." 
(Appositive  with  object.) 
As  object  of  a  verb  or  preposition. 

Ex.    He  said,  "  What  is  that  to  you  f  "     (Object  of  verb.) 


A   REVIEW  OF  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR  39 

He  lives  on  what  he  begs  from  his  rich  relatives.    (Object 
of  preposition.) 

As  predicate  nominative. 

Ex.    The  fact  is  that  he  has  been  shamefully  imposed  upon. 

2.  An    adjective    clause    may  be   used   restrictiyely  or 
unrestrictively. 

A  restrictive  adjective  clause  limits  the  noun  or  pronoun  which 
it  modifies  so  closely  that  it  cannot  be  omitted  without  chang- 
ing the  meaning  of  the  statement.  A  restrictive  adjective 
clause  is  often  introduced  by  the  relative  pronoun  that. 

Ex.    Water  that  is  stagnant  is  unhealthy. 

An  unrestrictive  adjective  clause  is  not  so  closely  connected 
with  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  it  modifies  but  that  it  may  be 
changed  to  a  principal  clause,  or  sometimes  omitted  altogether 
from  the  statement.  That  cannot  be  used  to  introduce  an 
unrestrictive  clause. 

Ex.    Water,   which  is  composed  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  is 
necessary  to  life. 
Mr.  Brown,  ivho  has  Just  bought  the  house  next  door,  has 
three  daughters. 

3.  An   adverbial  clause   may  show  time,  place,  cause, 
purpose,   manner,   degree,  condition,   or  concession. 

Ex.     When  ijou  are  ready  we  shall  start.     (Time.) 
We  shall  go  wherever  you  say.     (Place.) 
Susan  spent  her  vacation  in  Washington,  because  she 
unshed  to  see  the  President's  inauguration.    (Cause.) 
Albert  has  entered  a  Business  College,  that  he  may  pre- 
pare himself  to  be  his  father' s  bookkeeper.     (Purpose.) 
As  the  twig  is  bent,  the  tree  's  inclined.     (Manner.) 
Always  do  your  work    as  well  as  you  possibly  can. 
(Degree.) 


40  COMPOSITION  AND  RnETORIC 

If  you  change  your  mind,  please  let  me  know.     (Condition.) 
Although    it    looks    like    rain,    we    shall    not    defer    our    trip. 
(Concession.) 


EXERCISE 


(1- 


In   the  following   sentences,   tell   to  what   class    each 
Subordinate  clause  belongs  and  how  it  is  used: 

1.  He  was  unhappy  because  he  knew  that  people  did  not  trust 
his  word. 

2.  Death  is  a  debt  that  all  are  bound  to  pay. 

3.  The  teacher  often  says  that  "  Knowledge  is  the  wing  where- 
with we  fly  to  heaven." 

4.  A  hero  will  do  whatever  duty  demands. 

5.  When  Ajax  strives  some  rock's  vast  weight  to  throw, 
The  line,  too,  labors,  and  the  words  move  slow. 

6.  Where  duty  calls,  or  danger, 
Be  never  wanting  there. 

7.  I  have  warned  you  now,  lest  you  should  make  the  mistake 
that  John  made  yesterday. 

^8.    Although  he  had  often  heard  the  statement,  "  Whatever  is  is 
right,"  he  had  never  believed  it. 

9.    What  is  well  begun  is  half  done. 

10.  From  what  we  already  know  of  him  we  feel  that  we  may 
safely  trust  him. 

11.  If  you  think  we  are  going  to  wait  for  you  all  day,  you  are 
mistaken. 

12.  In  order  to  increase  your  vocabulary,  you  should  familiarize 
yourself  with  a  few  new  words  each  week. 

13.  Mica,  which  is  transparent  and  durable,  is  sometimes  used 
in  making  lamp  chimneys. 

14.  We  must  go  to  bed  early  to-night,  for  we  are  going  to  start 
to-morrow  morning  as  soon  as  the  sun  rises. 

15.  As  a  man  thinketh  in  his  heart,  so  is  he. 


A    REVIEW   OF  ENaHSII    GRAMMAR  41 

II 

Write  a  sentence  containinj^  a  restrictive  adjective 
clause,  a  noun  clause  used  as  appositive,  and  an  adverbial 
clause  uf  concession. 

Ill 

Classify  all  the  clauses  in  the  poem  on  pages  90-92. 

IV 

In  your  own  daily  reading  and  writing,  find  illustra- 
tions of  all  the  kinds  of  clauses  you  have  just  studied. 

VI.     SENTENCES 

41.  A  sentence  is  a  statement  in  words  of  a  complete  thought. 
That  statement  may  consist  of  but  two  words ;  or,  if  it 
can  be  made  intelligible,  it  may,  like  some  of  Milton's 
sentences,  fill  half  a  page.  A  sentence  is  to  be  carefully 
distinguished  from  a  clause,  which,  although  it  contains  a 
verb  and  its  subject,  is  only  a  part  of  a  sentence.  Sen- 
tences are  classified  according  to  their /orm  and  their  use. 

42.  Kinds  of  sentences  according  to  form.  Sentences  are 
named  from  their  form,  simple,  compound,  and  complex. 

1.  A  simple  sentence  is  a  sentence  that  contains  but 
one  subject  and  one  predicate. 

A  sentence  may  contain,  instead  of  a  simple  subject  and 
a  simple  predicate,  (1)  a  compound  subject;  (2)  a  compound 
predicate;  or  (3)  a  compound  subject  and  a  compound 
predicate. 

Ex.    Mrs.  Stamlish  and  her  sister  have  gone  to  New  York  to 
live.     (Compound  subject.) 


42  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Helen  has  ]\\^i  fallen  on  the  ice  and  has  sprained  her  ankle. 
(Compound  predicate.) 

Washington  and  Hamilton  were  personal  friends,  hut  some- 
times disagreed  about  political  matters.  (Compound 
subject  and  compound  predicate.) 

2.  A  compound  sentence^  is  a  sentence  that  contains  two 
or  more  principal  clauses. 

Ex.    They  uttered  no  cry ;  not  a  sound  escaped  them. 

3.  A  complex  sentence'^  is  a  sentence  that  contains  one 
principal  clause  and  one  or  more  subordinate  clauses. 

Ex.    The  7nan  whom  I  wanted  to  see  has  gone. 

43.  Kinds  of  sentences  according  to  use.  Sentences  are 
named  from  their  use,  declarative,  interrogative,  impera- 
tive, and  exclamatory. 

A  declarative  sentence  asserts  something  as  a  fact. 

Ex.    A  friend  in  need  is  a  friend  indeed. 
An  interrogative  sentence  asks  a  question. 

Ex.    Are  you  a  Democrat? 
An  imperative  sentence  gives  a  command. 

Ex.    Give  to  the  winds  thy  fears. 

An  exclamatory  sentence  is  a  statement  made  under  the  influ- 
ence of  strong  feeling.     It  often  begins  with  how  or  what. 
Ex.    How  bitterly  you  will  rue  this  day ! 

What  a  terrible"  mistake  you  have  made ! 

lAny  part  of  a  compound  sentence  may  itself  be  complex,  Ex.  The 
burglar  that  broke  into  my  house  escaped ;  but  his  accomplice  was  caught  as 
he  loas  entering  the  hack  door.  The  subordinate  part  of  a  complex  sentence 
may  itself  be  compound,  Ex.  John  ran  away  from  home  because  his  mother 
scolded  and  his  father  whipped  him. 


A  REVIEW  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  43 

EXERCISE 

I 

Write  three  simple  sentences,  one  with  a  compound  sub- 
ject, one  with  a  compound  predicate,  and  one  witli  both. 

n 

Write  three  compound  sentences,  using  three  different 
sets  of  correlatives. 

Ill 

Write  a  compound  sentence  of  three  parts,  connecting 
the  first  and  second  parts  by  and,  and  the  second  and 
third  parts  by  hut. 

IV 

Write  a  complex  sentence  in  which  the  subordinate 
clause  modifies  the  object  of  the  verb  of  the  principal 
clause. 

V 

Write  a  compound  sentence,  each  part  of  which  is  com- 
plex.    State  the  use  of  each  subordinate  clause. 

SUMMARY 

44.  This  review  of  English  grammar  has  given  a  prac- 
tical classification  of  the  parts  of  speech,  explained  the 
changes  in  the  parts  of  speech  for  different  constructions, 
and  distinguished  the  forms  and  uses  of  phrases,  clauses, 
and  sentences. 

It  has  shown  something  of  the  logic  of  the  oral  and 
written  expressions  of  thought.     The  pupil  has  all  the 


44 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


time  been  writing,  and  has  doubtless  proved  in  his  own 
experience  that  the  study  of  English  grammar  is  of  ser- 
vice in  learning  to  express  his  ideas.  Below  is  given  a 
table  which  will  show  at  a  glance  the  main  facts  of  the 
chapter. 

Tabular  View  of  Chapter  I 


I.    Introduction 

11.    Classification  of  the  Parts  of  Speech 

Proper 


1.    Nouns. 


2.    Pronouns  . 


3.    Adjectives 


4.    Yerbs 


Class  names 

Common J  Abstract  nouns 

Collective  nouns 
Verbal  nouns 

Personal 

Relative 

Interrogative 


Adjective , 


Descriptive 
Articles .  . 


Pronominal 


Demonstrative 

Distributive 

Numeral 

Definite 

Indefinite 

Demonstrative 

Distributive 

Numeral 


Proper 

Weak  (or  Regular) 

Strong  (or  Irregular) 

Transitive 

Intransitive 

Auxiliary 

Copulative 

Defective 

Impersonal 


A   REVIEW   OF  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 


45 


5.    Adverbs 


(Time 
Place 
Manner 
Degree 


6.  Prepositions 

7.  Conjunctions  .... 

8.  Interjections 

III.    Changes  in  the  Parts  of  Speech 


Coordinate 
Subordinate 


' 

'  First 

Person    .  . 

.     •    Second 
I  Third 

Number    . 

(  Singular 
'     1  Plural 

1.    Nouns  and  Pronouns  . 

Masculine 

Gender  .  . 

Feminine 
.  Neuter 
(  Nominative 

Case    .  .   . 

.     <   Possessive 

'^ 

^  Objective 

"  Voice 

Mood 

2.   Verbs < 

Tense 

Person 

Number 

3.    Adjectives  and  Adverbs.     Comparison 

{Prepositions  "^ 
Conjunctions   >  no  change 
Interjections  J 

IV.    Classification  of  Phrases 

Prei)ositional 
1.    According  to  Form  ^   Participial 
Infinitive 


46 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


{Noun 
Adjective 
Adverbial 

V.    Classification  of  Clauses  according  to  Use 
•  f  Subject 

1.    Noun J  ^PPositive 

I  Predicate  Nominative 

L  Object  of  a  verb  or  a  preposition 

(  Restrictive 
\  Unrestrictive 

f  Time 
Place 
Cause 
Purpose 
Manner 
Degree 
Condition 
Concession 


2.    Adjective 


3.    Adverbial 


VI.    Classification  of  Sentences 

C  Simple 
1.    According  to  Form .    <j   Compound 
L  Complex 


2.    According  to  Use    . 


Declarative 
Interrogative 
Imperative 
Exclamatory 


CHAPTER   II 
REVIEW  OF  PUNCTUATION 

The  smallest  word  has  some  unguarded  spot, 
And  danger  lurks  in  i  without  a  dot. 

Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

I.     CAPITALIZATION 

45.  General  rules  for  capitalization.  When  capital  letters 
were  first  used  in  English  they  served  chiefly  for  orna- 
ment and  variety,  and  were  inserted  somewhat  indiscrimi- 
nately according  to  the  writer's  individual  taste.  Usage 
has  finally  become  virtually  uniform,  and  is  indicated 
broadly  by  two  general  rules  :  (1)  the  first  word  of  every 
sentence  and  of  every  line  of  poetry,  and  (2)  every  proper 
name  and  each  word  composing  a  proper  name,  begins 
with  a  capital  letter.  These  very  broad  rules  are  extended, 
of  course,  to  include  a  large  number  of  specific  cases,  the 
most  important  of  which  are  given  below. 

46.  Special  rules  for  capital  letters.  The  following  are  the 
most  common  rules  for  the  use  of  capitals. 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  sentence  should  begin  with  a 
capital. 

2.  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry  should  begin 
with  a  capital. 

3.  The  first  word  of  every  direct  quotation  should  begin 

with  a  capital. 

47 


48  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

4.  The  first  word  of  every  direct  question  should  begin 
with  a  capital. 

Ex.    Ask  yourself  this  question  :  Are  you  making  the  most 
of  your  time  and  talent? 

5.  The  words  /and  0  should  always  be  capitals. 

6.  Every  proper  noun  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

7.  Words  derived  from  proper  nouns  should  begin  with 
capitals,  unless  by  long  usage  they  have  lost  all  associa- 
tion with  the  nouns  from  which  they  are  derived. 

Ex.    C/im^iVm  from  Christ;  but  currant  from  Corinth;  Spanish, 
Mohammedan,  Romanize. 

8.  The  words  street^  river.,  mountain^  etc.,  usually  begin 
with  capitals  when  they  are  used  in  connection  with  proper 
names. 

Ex.    Chapel  Street,  the  Mississippi  River,  Lake  Whitney. 

9.  The  words  North.,  Souths  East^  and  West  should  begin 
with  capitals  whenever  they  refer  to  parts  of  the  country, 
and  not  simply  to  points  of  the  compass. 

Ex.    They  have  a  daughter  living  in  the  West. 
The  house  faces  west. 

10.  Names  of  the  days  of  the  week  and  the  months  of  the 
year  —  but  not  the  seasons  —  should  begin  with  capitals. 

Ex.    Wednesday,  February,  winter,  spring. 

11.  Words  denoting  family  relations  —  such  SiS  father., 
mother.,  uncle.,  etc.  —  are  begun  with  capitals  only  when 
they  are  used  with  the  proper  name  of  the  person,  or 
without  a  possessive  pronoun. 


REVIEW  OF  PUNCTUATION  49 

(1  have  liad  a  letter  from  Mother. 
'  \  This  knife  was  a  present  from  Uncle  John. 
(I  have  had  a  letter  from  my  mother. 
(  Did  your  uncle  give  you  one? 

12.  Titles  of  honor  or  office  begin  with  capitals  when 
used  in  a  formal  way  or  in  connection  with  a  proper  name. 

Ex.    The  crown  was  once  worn  by  King  Henry  V. 

The  President  summoned  the  Secretary  of  State  to  an 
important  interview. 

13.  In  the  titles  of  books  and  essays  all  words  except 
prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  unimportant  adjectives 
usually  begin  with  capitals. 

Ex.    "The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables." 

14.  All  names  of  God,  and  expressions  used  as  titles 
of  the  Deity,  should  begin  witli  capitals.  Also,  pei-sonal 
pronouns  referring  to  tlie  Deity  are  capitalized  when  used 
in  direct  address  without  an  antecedent,  or  to  avoid  con- 
fusion with  pronouns  referring  to  another  antecedent. 

Ex.   Let  the  Redeemer's  name  be  sung. 
Be  true  thyself,  and  follow  Me. 
O  Thou  that  hear'st  the  mourner's  prayer. 

15.  The  words  Bihle^  Scriptures^  and  .ill  names  of 
books  and  parts  of  the  Bible  should  usually  begin  witli 
capitals. 

16.  Words  representing  important  events  in  liistory  and 
epochs  of  time  should  begin  with  capitals. 

Ex.    The  French  Revolution,  the  Middle  Ages. 

17.  Names  of  personified  objects  should  begin  with 
capitals  (see  §  308). 


60  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISE 
I 

Explain  the  use  of  all  the  capitals  on  page  91. 

n 

From  your  own  reading,  bring  to  class  three  illustra- 
tions of  each  of  the  rules  for  capitals. 

Ill 

In  the  selections  given  below,  supply  capitals  wherever 
needed,  and  state  the  rules  for  their  use  : 

1.  in  874  a  lombard  city  was  besieged  by  the  saracens,  the 
inhabitants  first  implored  the  help  of  the  french  king,  but  he  either 
would  not  or  could  not  aid  them,  they  then  decided  to  appeal  to 
the  greek  emperor. 

2.  a  traveler  at  a  hotel  rose  from  his  bed  to  examine  the  weather, 
instead  of  looking  out  of  the  window,  he  thrust  his  head  through  the 
glass  door  of  a  cupboard,  "landlord,"  cried  the  astonished  man, 
"this  is  very  singular  weather,  the  night  is  as  dark  as'egypt  and 
smells  of  cheese." 

3.  John  gilpin  was  a  citizen 

of  credit  and  renown ; 
a  train-band  captain  eke  was  he 
of  famous  london  town. 

IV 

Write  a  page  about  some  Fourth  of  July  celebration, 
commenting  briefly  on  the  most  interesting  feature  of  the 
program.     Give  the  rule  for  the  use  of  each  capital  letter. 


REVIEW  OF  PUNCTUATION  61 


II.     PUNCTUATION 

47.  Value  of  punctuation  marks.  In  the  earliest  printed 
books  the  words  followed  one  another  without  anything 
to  indicate  the  separation  of  thoughts  or  parts  of  thoughts. 
It  is  easy  to  see  how  inconvenient  and  often  misleading 
this  must  have  been.  Gradually  there  came  into  use 
certain  marks  to  indicate  pauses  in  the  thought ;  but  since 
these  were  often  used  at  the  writer's  own  discretion,  the 
results  were  unsatisfactory. 

The  usage  of  a  majority  of  the  best  writers  can  now  be 
stated  in  the  form  of  more  or  less  definite  rules  for  punc- 
tuation. These  are  not  altogether  arbitrary,  but  are  the 
natural  outgrowth  of  convenience  and  good  sense.  Their 
chief  value  is  to  make  the  meaning  of  the  writer  clear  by 
showing  the  pauses  in  the  thought,  and  the  grammatical 
construction  of  the  sentences  that  express  that  thought. 

The  following  illustration  shows  that  the  study  of 
punctuation  is  too  important  to  be  neglected.  By  one 
mode  of  punctuation,  this  strange  statement  is  made: 

Every  lady  in  this  land 
Hath  twenty  nails  upon  each  hand ; 
Five  and  twenty  on  hands  and  feet. 
And  this  is  true,  without  deceit. 

By  a  slight  change  of  punctuation,   the    true   meaning 
becomes  apparent: 

Every  lady  in  this  land 
Hath  twenty  nails ;   upon  each  hand 
Five;  and  twenty  on  hands  and  feet. 
And  this  is  true,  without  deceit. 


52  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

48.  General  directions  for  punctuation, 

1.  Learn  by  heart  the  most  common  rules  of  punc- 
tuation. 

2.  Note  the  punctuation  of  the  best  authors  you  read. 

3.  Practice  constantly  the  facts  learned. 

4.  Punctuate  a  sentence  while  you  are  writing  it. 

49.  Most  common  punctuation  marks.  The  points  most 
frequently  used  are  the  period,  the  comma,  the  semicolon, 
and  the  colon.  The  period  usually  marks  the  close  of  a 
sentence.  Frequently  the  comma,  the  semicolon,  and  the 
colon  may  be  considered  as  indicating  three  relatively 
different  degrees  of  separation,  —  the  comma  marking  the 
least  degree,  the  colon  marking  the  greatest. 

Typical  uses  of  the  comma,  the  semicolon,  and  the  colon 
in  the  punctuation  of  simple,  compound,  and  complex 
sentences  are  illustrated  by  the  following  examples : 

Simple :  French,  German,  and  English  are  three  of  the  most 
important  modern  languages. 

Compound:  The  French,  it  is  said,  is  the  most  graceful  of  tlie 
important  modern  languages  ;  the  German  is  the  most  forcible  ;  the 
English  combines  the  good  qualities  of  both  the  others. 

Complex:  Three  of  the  most  important  modern  languages  are: 
the  French,  which  is  the  most  graceful ;  the  German,  which  is  the 
most  forcible ;  and  the  English,  which  combines  the  good  qualities 
of  both  the  others. 

50.  Rules  for  the  period.  Two  common  rules  for  the  use 
of  the  period  are  to  be  noted. 

1.  The  period  should  be  used  to  mark  the  close  of 
every  complete  sentence  which  is  neither  interrogative 
nor  exclamatory. 


REVIEW  OF  PUNCTUATION  63 

Every  abbreviation  should  be  followed  by  a  period- 
Ex.    Rev.  Timothy  D wight,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

Insert  these  corrections  on  pp.  34  and  56  of  the  MS. 

See  Matt.  10  :  7,  8 ;    1  Sam.  v.  1,  2.      (Both  styles  of 
punctuation  are  authorized  by  good  usage.) 

EXERCISE 


Punctuate  the  following  exercises  : 

1.  For  parallel  accounts  of  this  incident,  see  Mark  .5  21  43  Luke 
8  40  56     Matt  ix  18  31.     See  also  John  xv  12  13. 

2.  Bought  1  bbl  flour  at  $12.50  3  bush  corn  at  87^c  24  lbs 
sugar  at  9c  3  gal  molasses  at  37^c  2  lbs  tea  at  62^c  6  lbs  coffee 
at  15c    and  4  lbs  butter  at  22c   what  was  the  cost  of  the  whole? 

3.  Sold  to  J  I*  F  mdse  as  follows 

Jan    18  1862  on  6m     75    yd  cloth  at  .fl  .f300 

Mar   12      "      "   3m  600  gal  molasses  at  33^c     .1^200 
June  15      "      "   4m     50  bbl  flour  at  |18  $400 

II 

Write  the  proper  abbreviations  for  the  following 
expressions : 

1.  Anonymous,  manuscripts,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord,  Bachelor 
of  Arts,  Connecticut,  Maine,  California,  Florida,  Illinois,  Minnesota, 
North  Dakota,  West  Indies. 

2,  Noon,  afternoon,  forenoon,  Member  of  Congress,  Fellow  of 
The  Royal  Society,  Doctor  of  Laws,  Monsieur,  Madame,  Messieurs, 
Mademoiselle,  South  Latitude,  East  Longitude. 

51.  Rules  for  the  comma.  Usage  varies  more  in  the  case 
of  the  comma  than  in  that  of  any  other  mark  of  punctua- 
tion, so  that  in  many  instances  the  rules  are  not   rigidly 


54  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

binding.  The  tendency  among  the  best  writers  seems  to 
be  to  use  no  more  commas  than  are  necessary  to  make 
the  meaning  clear.  The  rules  given  below  are  generally 
followed,  and  it  will  be  well  for  young  writers  to  study 
them  carefully. 

1.  A  series  of  pairs  of  words  or  phrases  should  have  a 
comma  placed  after  each  pair. 

Ex.    Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  give  my 
hand  and  my  heart  to  this  vote. 
The  sunny  morning  and  the  gloomy  midnight,  the  bleak 
winter  and  the  balmy  spring,  alike  speak  to  us  of 
the  Creator's  power. 

2.  Words  or  phrases  which  are  contrasted  should  be 
separated  by  commas. 

Ex.    We  live  in  deeds,  not  years. 

There  are  few  voices  in  the  world,  but  many  echoes. 

3.  Phrases  and  clauses  which,  by  inversion,  are  placed 
at  the  beginning  of  sentences  are  usually  followed  by 
commas ;  though  if  the  phrase  is  a  short  one  it  is  not 
always  so  set  off. 


Ex.  j 
But 


Wearied  by  his  London  life,  Irving  started  for  a  tour 

on  the  Continent. 
Because  the  doctor  insisted  on  a  change  of  scene,  they 

took  the  invalid  to  Mentpne. 

Of  his  success  there  can  be  but  little  doubt. 


4.  Introductory  words  and  phrases  and  independent 
adverbs  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence 
by  commas. 


REVIEW  OF  PUNCTUATION  55 

Ex.  Now,  if  tliere  was  one  quality  on  which  that  gentle- 
man prided  hiniselt"  more  than  on  another,  it  was  the 
superiority  of  his  manners. 
I  think,  also,  that  "  The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal "  owed 
its  success  quite  as  much  to  a  presentation  of  nature 
as  to  its  misty  legend. 

5.  Many  parenthetical  expressions  are  too  closely 
connected  in  thought  with  the  remainder  of  the  sen- 
tence to  be  enclosed  in  marks  of  parenthesis.  Such 
expressions  should  be  separated  from  the  remainder  of 
the  sentence  by  commas.  For  marks  of  parenthesis,  see 
Section  58. 

Ex.    The  vessel,  you  may  be  astonished  to  hear,  M'as  so  long 
and  broad  and  ponderous  that  the  united  force  of  all 
the  fifty  was  insufficient  to  shove  her  into  the  water. 
"I  am  the  king's  daughter,"  she  said  to  him,  "and  my 
name  is  Medea." 

Note.  —  If  the  intermediate  expression  is  restrictive,  so  that 
it  is  inseparable  in  idea  from  what  precedes,  no  comma  should 
be  used. 

Ex.    The  tree  by  the  garden  gate  was  blown  down  last  night. 

6.  Words  or  phrases  in  the  same  construction,  forming 
a  series,  should  be  separated  from  each  other  by  commas. 

Ex.   The  sea  carried  men,  spars,  casks,'  planks,  bulwarks, 
heaps  of  such  toys,  into  the  boiling  surge. 

Note  1.  —  If  there  are  two  or  more  words  or  phrases,  with 
a  conjunction  between  each  two,  no  commas  are  needed. 

Ex.   We  think  with  reverence  and  gratitude  of  their  toils 
and  sacrifices. 
The  back  of   the  chair  was   curiously  carved  in  open 
work,  so  as  to  represent  flowers  and  fruit  and  foliage. 


56  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

Note  2.  —  If  the  last  two  words  or  phrases  are  not  con- 
nected by  a  conjtinction,  a  comma  is  usually  placetl  after  the 
series,  unless  what  follows  is  a  single  word  or  a  short  expres- 
sion very  closely  connected  with  the  series. 

Ex.    The   katydids,    the    grasshoppers,    the    crickets,    make 
themselves  heard. 
One  deep,  intense,  ominous  silence  pervades  that   dan- 
gerous assembly.     (Close  connection.) 

Note  3.  —  If  in  the  series  the  only  conjunction  is  between 
the  last  two  words,  the  better  usage  is  to  place  a  comma  before 
the  conjunction. 

Ex.    The   Teutonic   invaders  belonged  to  three    tribes:    the 
Jutes,  the  Saxons,  and  the  Angles. 

Note  4.  —  A  comma  should  not  be  inserted  after  an  adjec- 
tive that  describes  or  limits  another  adjective  together  with 
the  following  noun. 

Ex.    Slie  wore  a  pair  of  soiled  white  kid  gloves. 

7.  Words  in  apposition,  with  their  modifiers,  should  be 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 

Ex.    When    Jason,  the    son    of    the     dethroned     King    of 

lolcus,   was  a   little    boy,   he  was    sent    away  from 

his   parents  and    placed  under  the  queerest  school 

master  that  ever  you  heard  of. 

Note  1.  —  If  one  of  the  terms  in  apposition  is  a  general 
title,  the  comma  may  be  omitted, 

Ex.    Queen  Artemisia  built  the  famous  Mausoleum. 
The  poet  Lowell  was  a  native  of  Cambridge. 

Note  2.  —  A  title  or  a  degree,  following  the  name  of  a 
person,  should  be  separated  from  the  name  by  a  comma. 


REVIE^V   OF  PUNCTUATION  57 

Ex.    Address  John  W.  Dixon,  Secretary, 

Rev.  T.  T.  Munger,   D.D.,   is  the   autiior  of   ''On  tlie 
Threshold." 

Note  3.  —  If  the  pronoun  is  used  with  the  noun,  for 
emphasis  or  in  direct  address,  the  comma  should  be  omitted. 

Ex.    Hawthorne    liiniself    could    scarcely   have   imagined   a 
wilder,  stranger  story.     (Emphasis.) 
"Ye  men  of  Athens,  I  perceive  that  in  all  things  ye 
are  too  superstitious."     (Address.) 

8.  Nouns  or  phrases  which  are  independent  by  direct 
address  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence 
by  connuas. 

Ex.    Go  along,  my  good  Jason,  and  my  blessing  go  with  you. 

Note.  —  If  strong  emotion  is  to  be  indicated,  the  exclama- 
tion point  should  be  used  instead  of  the  comma. 

Ex.  "  Accursed  tree !  "  cried  the  chief  justice,  gnashing  his 
teeth,  "  would  that  thou  hadst  been  left  standing- 
till  Hancock,  Adams,  and  every  other  traitor  were 
hanged  upon  thy  branches !  " 

9.  Expressions  containing  the  case  absolute  should  be 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 

Ex.  Peace  being  declared  between  France  and  P^ngland  in 
1748,  the  governor  had  now  an  opportunity  to  sit 
at  his  ease  in  Grandfather's  chair. 

-10.  A  relative  clause  which  is  not  restrictive,  but  which 
presents  an  additional  thought,  should  be  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 


58  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Ex.    The  man,  who  proved  to  be  an  escaped  convict,  had 
in  his  possession  one  of  the  missing  papers.     (Addi- 
tional thought.) 
The  man  who  had  first  spoken  then  arose  and  asked 
the  attention  of  the  audience.     (Restrictive.) 

Note  1.  — If  the  relative  pronoun  is  immediately  followed 
by  a  word  or  a  phrase  enclosed  in  commas,  a  comma  should  be 
placed  before  the  relative  clause,  whether  restrictive  or  not. 

Ex.    How  beautiful  the  long,  mild  twilight,  which,  like  a 
silver  clasp,  unites  to-day  with  yesterday! 

Note  2.  —  A  restrictive  relative  clause  should  be  preceded 
by  a  comma,  if  several  words  come  between  the  relative  pro- 
noun and  its  antecedent. 

Ex.    No  American  could  have  died,  who  would  have  been 
more  universally  mourned  than  Longfellow. 

Note  3.  —  If  the  relative  pronoun  refers  to  each  of  a  series 
of  nouns,  it  should  be  separated  from  the  series  by  a  comma. 

Ex.    He  had  hopes,  fears,  and  longings,  which  his  friends 
could  not  share. 

11.  Dependent  and  conditional  clauses,  commonly  intro- 
duced by  such  words  as  z/,  when,  unless,  though,  should  be 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas,  unless 
the  connection  is  very  close. 

Ex.    If  youth  are  taught  how  to  think,  they  will  soon  learn 

ichat  to  think. 
Were  all  these  changing  beauties  of  form  and  color  to 

disappear,  how  unsightly,  dull,  and  dreary  would  be 

this  world  of  ours  ! 
Hawthorne  was  four  years  old  when  his  father  died. 

(Close  connection.) 


REVIEW  OF  PUNCTUATION  69 

12.  In  compound  sentences  the  coordinate  clauses,  if 
simple  in  construction  and  closely  related,  should  be  sepa- 
rated by  commas. 

Ex.    Captain  Hull  then  took  a  key  from  his  pocket,  I  unlocked 
the  chest,  and  together  we  lifted  its  ponderous  lid. 

13.  In  compound  sentences,  containing  a  common  verb, 
the  omission  of  the  verb  in  any  clause  except  the  first 
should  be  marked  by  a  comma. 

Ex.    Carthage   has  crossed   tlip  Alps;    Rome,   [has  crossed] 
the  seas. 

14.  Short  quotations,  or  expressions  resembling  quota- 
tions, should  be  preceded  by  commas. 

Ex.    The  proverb  says,  "  Make  haste  slowly." 

The  question  now  is,  How  shall  we  know  what  are  good 
books? 

EXERCISE 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  giving  the  rule  for 
each  comma: 

1.  The  books  which  help  you  most  are  those  which  make  you 
think  most. 

2.  One  of  the  best  books  I  ever  read  "Little  Women"  was  writ- 
ten by  Miss  Alcott. 

3.  The  first  lady  wore  a  large  bonnet ;  the  second  a  small  bon- 
net; and  the  third  no  bonnet  at  all. 

4.  On  the  shelves  of  this  cupl)oard  used  to  lie  bundles  of  sweet 
marjoram  and  pennyroyal  and  lavender  and  mint  and  catnip. 

5.  The  turtles    head  tail  and  claws  were  striped  yellow  black 
and  red. 

6.  Silks  rustled  plumes  waved  and  jeweled  embroideries  flashed 
from  Genoa  velvet. 

7.  As  a  rule  the  French  are  fond  of  fine  funerals. 


60  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

8.  Isaac's  father  being  dead  Mrs  Newton  was  married  again  to 
a  clergyman. 

9.  "Well  said  wise  man  with  the  one  sandal"  cried  he. 

10.  Truth  to  say  he  was  a  conscientious  man  and  ever  bore  in 
mind  the  golden  maxim  "Spare  the  rod  and  spoil  the  child." 

11.  Like  many  authors  Whittier  was  attracted  in  the  autumn  of 
his  life  to  the  rich  fields  of  Oriental  literature. 

12.  Death  thinned  their  ranks  but  could  not  shake  their  souls. 

13.  While  leading  this  quiet  uneventful  life  Hawthorne  began  to 
keep  notebooks  in  which  he  recorded  what  he  saw  on  his  walks  what 
he  heard  other  people  say  and  thoughts  and  fancies  that  came  to  him 
through  the  day  and  night. 

14.  They  are  not  lost  but  only  gone  before. 

15.  Irving  was  born  in  1783;  Longfellow  in  1807;  and  Holmes 
in  1809. 

16.  A  good  motto  for  you  my  young  friends  is  Make  haste  slowly. 

17.  Tlie  things  which  after  all  sharply  distinguish  Holmes  from 
other  poets  are  the  lyrics  and  metrical  essays  composed  for  special 
audiences  and  occasions. 

18.  Longfellow  loved  the  lights  and  beacons  the  mist  and  fog- 
bells  the  sleet  and  surge  of  winter. 

19.  There  are  chance  pictures  of  Acadian  fields  New  World  rivers 
prairies  bayous  forests  by  moonlight  and  starlight  and  midday; 
glimpses  too  of  picturesque  figures  artisans  and  farmers  soldiery 
trappers  boatmen  emigrants  and  priests. 

20.  Nothing  great  or  good  can  be  accomplished  without  labor 
and  toil. 

21.  Whittier's  story  "The  Rattlesnake  Hunter"  is  based  upon 
this  fact. 

22.  "Be  ready  to  come  when  I  ring  the  bell"  said  the  old  lady. 

23.  Miss  Margaret  had  deep  calm  honest  blue  eyes  and  wavy 
light  brown  hair. 

24.  Critics  historians  essayists  and  poets  who  had  long  been  Haw- 
thorne's friends  joined  in  the  procession  to  the  grave  beneath  the 
pines. 

25.  "I  was  moderately  studious"  says  Doctor  Holmes  "and  very 
fond  of  reading  stories  which  I  sometimes  did  in  school  hours." 


REVIEW  OF  PUNCTUATION  61 

52.  Rules  for  the  semicolon.  When  a  long  sentence  makes 
the  use  of  commas  inadequate  for  cleai-ness  of  meaning, 
the  following  rules  will  apply. 

1.  If  the  members  of  a  compound  sentence  are  complex 
in  construction,  or  if  they  contain  commas,  they  should 
usually  be  separated  by  semicolons. 

Ex.  Holmes  is,  like  Lowell,  a  humorist ;  hut,  like  Lowell,  he 
knows  how  to  be  earnest,  serious,  and  even  pathetic. 

2.  Short  sentences  closely  connected  in  meaning,  but 
having  no  grammatical  dependence  upon  one  another, 
should  be  separated  by  semicolons. 

Ex.  The  blue  sky  now  turned  more  softly  gray ;  the  great 
watch-stars  shut  up  their  holy  eyes  ;  the  east  began 
to  kindle. 

NoTK.  —  If  the  sentences  are  short,  simple  in  meaning,  and 
very  closely  connected,  they  should  be  separated  by  commas. 

Ex.  The  fire  burns,  the  water  drowns,  the  air  consumes,  the 
earth  buries. 

3.  Clauses  or  phrases  which  have  a  common  depend- 
ence upon  a  general  clause  should  be  separated  from  one 
another  by  semicolons.  If  the  clause  upon  which  they 
all  depend  comes  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  they 
may  be  separated  from  it  by  a  comma;  if  it  is  placed  at 
the  end  of  the  sentence,  the  comma  should  be  followed  by 
a  dash. 

Ex.  Science  declares  that  no  particle  of  matter  can  be 
destroyed  ;  that  each  atom  has  its  place  in  the  uni- 
verse ;  and  that,  in  seeking  that  place,  each  obeys 
certain  fixed  laws. 


62  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

The  darkening  foliage;  the  embrowning  grain;  the 
golden-fly  haunting  the  blackberry  bushes  ;  the  cawing 
crows,  that  looked  down  from  the  mountain  on  the 
cornfield,  and  waited  day  after  day  for  the  scarecrow 
to  finish  his  work  and  depart ;  and  the  smoke  of 
far-off  burning  woods  that  pervaded  the  air  and  hung 
in  purple  haze  about  the  summits  of  the  mountains, 
—  these  were  the  avant-couriers  and  attendants  of 
the  hot  August. 

4.  A  clause  which  is  added  to  a  complete  sentence  by- 
way of  explanation  should  be  preceded  by  a  semicolon,  if 
the  clause  is  introduced  by  a  conjunction. 

Ex.  The  water  of  the  river  Lethe  has  one  very  excellent 
quality  ;  for  a  single  draught  of  it  makes  people 
forget  every  care  and  sorrow. 

5.  The  semicolon  should  be  used  before  as,  viz., 
that  is,  etc.,  when  they  introduce  a  series  of  particular 
terms,  simple  in  form,  which  are  in  apposition  with  a 
general  term. 

Ex.    The  Greeks  invented  the  three  orders  of  architecture ; 
that  is,  the  Doric,  the  Ionic,  and  the  Corinthian. 
Sentences,  as  considered  in  grammar,  are  of  three  kinds ; 
namely,  simple,  complex,  and  compound. 

EXERCISE 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  giving  the  rule  for 
the  use  of  each  comma  and  semicolon : 

1.  As  in  ascending  the  lofty  peaks  of  the  Andes  we  at  length 
arrive  at  a  line  where  vegetation  ceases  and  the  principle  of  life 
seems  extinct  so  in  the  gradations  of  human  character  there  is  an 
elevation  which  is  never  attained  by  mortal  man. 

2.  Emerson  tells  us  to  hitch  our  wagons  to  a  star  and  it  is  a  good 
thing  when  a  romance  has  a  permanent  place  among  the  guide-books. 


REVIEW  OF  PUNCTUATION  63 

3.  Examinations  are  formidable  even  to  the  best  prepared  for 
the  greatest  fool  may  ask  more  than  the  wisest  man  can  answer. 

4.  The  robins  are  not  good  solo  singers  but  their  chorus  as  like 
primitive  fire-worshipers  they  hail  the  return  of  light  and  warmth 
to  the  world  is  unrivaled. 

5.  Concord  has  been  the  home  of  four  famous  men  namely 
Thoreau  Alcott  Emerson  and  Hawthorne. 

6.  The  singing  of  the  great  wood-fires  the  blowing  of  the  wind 
over  the  chimney  tops  as  if  they  were  organ  pipes  the  splendor  of 
the  spotless  snow  the  purple  wall  built  round  the  horizon  at  sunset 
the  sea-suggesting  pines  with  tlie  moan  of  the  billows  in  their 
branches  on  which  the  snows  were  furled  like  sails  the  northern 
lights  the  stars  of  steel  the  transcendent  moonlight  and  the  lovely 
shadows  of  the  leafless  trees  upon  the  snow  these  things  did  not 
pass  unnoticed  or  unremembered. 

7.  To  be  really  wise  we  must  labor  after  knowledge  to  be  learned 
we  must  study  to  be  great  in  anything  we  must  have  patience. 

8.  The  science  of  numbers  measures  the  earth  it  weighs  the 
stars  it  illumines  the  universe  it  is  law  order  and  beauty. 

/C  9.  A  fisherman^  it  is  true  had  noticed  her  little  footprints  in 
the  sand  as  he  went  homeward  along  the  beach  with  a  basket  of 
fish^  a  rustic  had  seen  the  child  stooping  to  gather  flowers  several 
persons  had  heard  either  the  rattling  of  chariot  wheels  or  the  rum- 
bling of  distant  thunder  and  one  old  woman  while  plucking  vervain 
and  catnip  had  heard  a  scream. 

10.  Bryant  was  robust  but  not  tyrannical  frugal  but  not  severe 
grave  yet  full  of  shrewd  and  kindly  humor. 

11.  Wherefore  teach  them  their  multiplication  table  good  Master 
Cheever  and  whip  them  well  when  they  deserve  it  for  much  of  the 
country's  welfare  depends  upon  these  boys. 

12.  You  remember  that  Bryant  first  won  his  fame  by  a  hymn  to 
death'^and  so  I  think  the  first  poem  of  Longfellow's  which  won 
recognition  for  him  was  that  translation  of  those  sounding  Spanish 
lines  .which  exalt  the  majesty  of  death  and  sing  the  shortness  of 
human  life. 

13.  These  tourists  insist  that  Emerson  lived  in  Thoreau's  Her- 
mitage that  Thoreau  was  present  at  Concord  fight  collecting  the 


64  COMPOSITION  AND  RUETORIC 

arrowheads  of  the  invaders  that  Alcott  wrote  "  The  Scarlet  Letter  " 
that  Hawthorne  wore  a  black  veil  ate  only  vegetables  and  never 
looked  upon  the  light  of  day. 

53.  Rules  for  the  colon.  Colons  are  used  much  less  than 
formerly,  because  long  and  formal  sentences  are  not  so 
common  as  they  once  were.  The  following  are  the  rules 
most  frequently  needed. 

1.  If  either  of  two  members  of  a  compound  sentence  is 
subdivided  by  semicolons,  they  should  usually  be  separated 
from  each  other  by  a  colon. 

Ex.  "  Very  good,"  replied  the  dial  :  "  but  recollect  that 
though  you  may  think  of  a  million  strokes  in  an 
instant,  you  are  required  to  execute  but  one  ;  and 
that,  however  often  you  may  hereafter  have  to  swing, 
a  moment  will  always  be  given  you  to  swing  in." 

2.  If  a  clause  which  is  added  to  a  complete  sentence 

is  not  introduced   by  a  connecting   word,   it   should  be 

preceded  by  a  colon. 

Ex.  He  who  seldom  thinks  of  heaven  is  not  likely  to  get 
there  :  the  only  way  to  hit  the  mark  is  to  keep  the 
eye  fixed  upon  it.     (See  §  52,  4.) 

3.  Quotations  or  formal  statements  introduced  by  such 
words  as  tJiis^  these^  and  as  follows,  should  be  preceded  by 
a  colon.  If  the  quotation  begins  on  a  new  line  or  occu- 
pies several  paragraphs,  the  colon  is  sometimes  followed 
by  a  dash. 

Ex.  Alexander  wept  when  he  heard  from  Anaxarchus  that 
there  was  an  infinite  number  of  worlds;  and  his 
friends  asking  him  if  any  accident  had  befallen  him, 
he  returned  this  answer :  "  Do  you  not  think  it  a 
matter  worthy  of  lamentation  that  when  there  is 
such  a  vast  multitude  of  worlds,  we  have  not  yet 
conquered  one  ?  " 


REVIEW   OF  PUNCTUATION  66 

He  read  on  a  marble  tablet  in  the  chapcil  wall  opposite, 

this  singular  inscription:  — 
<'  Look  not  mournfully  into  the  Past.    It  comes  not  back 

again.    Wisely  improve  the  Present.    It  is  thine.    Go 

forth  to  meet  the  shadowy  Future,  without  fear,  and 

with  a  manly  heart." 

4.  Several  particulars,  complex  in  form,  in  apposition 
with  a  general  term  should  be  separated  from  one  another 
by  semicolons  and  from  the  general  term  by  a  colon, 

Ex.  Cambridge  was  the  home  of  three  noted  writers: 
Holmes,  who  is  known  as  "The  Autocrat";  Lowell, 
whose  quaint  Yankee  humor  sparkles  in  "The  Big- 
low  Papers "  ;  and  the  gentle  author  of  "  Evan- 
geline," our   loved  and  lamented  Longfellow. 


EXERCISE 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  giving  the  rule  for 
each  comma,  semicolon,  and  colon : 

1.  Some  critics  are  like  chimney-sweepers  they  put  out  the  fires 
below  or  frighten  the  swallows  from  their  nests  above  they  scrape  a 
long  time  in  the  chimney  cover  themselves  with  soot  and  bring 
nothing  away  except  a  bag  of  cinders  and  then  sing  from  the  top  of 
the  house  as  if  they  had  built  it. 

2.  Error  is  a  hardy  plant  it  flourishes  in  every  soil. 

3.  We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident  that  all  men  are 
created  equal  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain 
inalienable  rights  that  among  these  are  life  liberty  and  the  pursuit 
of  happiness. 

4.  Macaulay  says  of  Burleigh's  biographer  and  biography  "Such 
a  book  might  before  the  deluge  have  been  considered  as  light  read- 
ing but  unhappily  the  life  of  man  is  now  threescore  years  and  ten 
and  we  cannot  but  think  it  somewhat  unfair  in  Dr.  Nares  to  demand 
from  us  so  large  a  portion  of  so  short  an  existence." 


66  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

5.  During  the  last  winter  New  England  has  won  another  victory 
not  in  depth  of  snow  and  thickness  of  ice  for  those  are  ancient  and 
familiar  triumphs  of  the  pine  over  the  palm. 

6.  The  perfect  purity  of  the  air  one  breathes  the  processes  of 
ventilation  which  are  constantly  going  on  the  sense  of  security  even 
when  the  winds  are  whistling  about  your  frail  shelter  all  these  things 
combine  to  make  the  tent  a  bedi'oom  so  delicious  that  the  fate  of 
Endymion  would  become  a  blessing. 

7.  King  Midas  found  on  his  plate  not  a  gold-fish  but  a  gold  fish  its 
little  bones  were  golden  wires  and  its  scales  were  thin  plates  of  gold. 

8.  The  English  language  is  composed  of  two  principal  elements 
the  Saxon  and  the  Classical. 

9.  The  English  language  is  composed  of  two  elements  the  Saxon 
which  includes  the  Danish  Swedish  and  other  related  languages  and 
the  Classical  which  includes  the  Latin  and  the  Greek. 

10.    Youth  fades  love  droops  the  leaves  of  friendship  fall 
.  I  A  mother's  secret  hope  outlives  them  all. 

54.    Rules  for  the  interrogation  point. 

1.  Every  direct  question  should  be  followed  by  an 
interrogation  point. 

Ex.    "Are   you   awake,   Prince    Theseus?"   she   whispered. 
(Direct.) 
The  gentle  Ariadne  came  to  his  door,  and  asked  in  a 
whisper  if  he  was  awake.     (Indirect.) 

Note  1.  —  Sometimes  the  sentence  is  not  expressed  in  the 
interrogative  form,  and  only  the  point  at  the  end  shows  that 
it  is  meant  to  be  a  question. 

Ex.  You  have  sometimes  been  on  a  railway  train  when  the 
engine  was  detached  a  long  way  from  the  station  you 
were  approaching? 

Note  2.  —  Several  distinct  questions  in  a  series  usually 
have  an  interrogation  point  after  each  question. 

Ex.  What  was  the  fate  of  Regulus  ?  of  Hannibal  ?  of  Cleo- 
patra ?  of  Julius  Caesar  ? 


REVIEW  OF  PUNCTUATION  67 

2.  To  express  doubt  as  to  the  accuracy  of  a  statement, 
place  after  it  an  interrogation  point  enclosed  in  marks  of 
parenthesis. 

Ex.   Ill  the  year  1805  (?)  Ining  made  his  first  voyage  across 
tlie  Atlantic. 

55.    Rules  for  the  exclamation  point. 

1.  The  exclamation  point  should  be  used  after  every 
expression  of  strong  emotion. 

Ex.    He  is  dead,  the  sweet  musician ! 
He  the  sweetest  of  all  singers  ! 
He  has  gone  from  us  forever, 
He  has  moved  a  little  nearer 
To  the  Master  of  all  music, 
To  the  Master  of  all  singing ! 

2.  The  exclamation  point  may  be  used  to  indicate  that 
the  expression  is  sarcastic,  or  that  the  writer  has  some 
doubt  about  the  truth  of  a  statement. 

Ex.    You  set  us  a  good  example,  your   own  temper  is   so 
angelic  ! 
That  man  a  poet !     He  looks  more  like  a  cowboy. 

3.  The  exclamation  point  should  be  used  after  inter- 
jections and  other  exclamatory  words. 

Ex.    "  Alas  !  "  said  he  with  a  sigh. 

Peace !     Peace  !     Why  dost  thou  lament  thy  fate? 

Note.  —  If  an  interjection  is  repeated,  a  comma  may  be 
used  to  separate  the  words  and  the  exclamation  point  placed 
only  at  the  end,  especially  where  it  is  not  the  writer's  intention 
to  make  each  of  the  words  emphatic. 

Ex.    Ha,  ha,  ha !     That 's  the  best  joke  I  have  heard  this 
many  a  day ! 
Aha !  aha !     I  've  caught  you  this  time  I     (Emphasis.) 


68  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISE 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  giving  the  rule  for 
each  exclamation  point  and  each  interrogation  point : 

1.  "Ah  me"  he  exclaims  at  another  time  "what  strains  of 
unwritten  verse  pulsate  through  my  soul  when  I  open  a  certain  closet 
in  the  ancient  house  where  I  was  born  " 

2.  Then  comes  the  sudden  rain-storni  and  the  birds  fly  to  and 
fro  and  shriek  Where  do  they  hide  themselves  in  such  storms  at 
what  firesides  dry  their  feathery  cloaks 

3.  "Turn  out  you  lobsterbacks "  one  would  say  "Crowd  them  off 
the  sidewalks  "  another  would  cry  "  A  redcoat  has  no  right  in  Boston 

streets" 

4.  Make  haste  Prince  Jason  For  your  life  make  haste 

5.  I  hear  a  voice  that  cries  "Alas  alas 

.    Whatever  hath  been  written  shall  remain 
Nor  be  erased  nor  written  o'er  again 
The  unwritten  only  still  belongs  to  thee 
Take  heed  and  ponder  well  what  that  shall  be" 

6.  And  hop'st  thou  hence  unscathed  to  go 
No  by  St.  Bride  of  Bothwell  no 

7.  Take  cold  indeed  He  does  not  look  like  one  of  the  sort  to 
take  cold  Besides  he  would  better  have  taken  cold  than  to  have 
taken  our  umbrella 

8.  Leave  thy  low-vaulted  past 

Let  each  new  temple,  nobler  than  the  last, 

Shut  thee  from  heaven  with  a  dome  more  vast, 

Till  thou  at  length  art  free. 

Leaving  thine  outgrown  shell  by  life's  unresting  sea 

9.  Throned  in  thine  ebon  chair  O  Poet  may 
We  bring  thy  brow  a  wreath 

10.    Stay  at  home  pretty  bees  fly  not  hence 
Mistress  Mary  is  dead  and  gone 


REVIEW  OF  PUNCTUATION  69 

11.  How  like  Wordsworth  it  sounds  Who  can  read  this 
immortal  little  poem  without  tears  springing  to  his  eyes 

12.  Alas  why  must  you  leave  us  now 

13.  But  where  shall  wisdom  be  found  And  where  is  the  place 
of  understanding 

56.  Rules  for  quotation  marks.  There  are  single  quota- 
tion marks  and  double  quotation  marks.  Four  rules  are 
of  special  interest. 

1.  Every  direct  quotation  should  be  enclosed  in  double 
quotation  marks. 

Ex.    "I  would  send  such  a  man,"  said  he,  "in  quest  of  the 
Golden  Fleece."     (Direct.) 
The  king   replied  that  he  would  send  such  a  man  in 
quest  of  the  Golden  Fleece.     (Indirect.) 

2.  A  quotation  consisting  of  several  paragraphs  requires 
quotation  marks  at  the  beginning  of  each  paragraph,  and 
at  the  end  of  the  last  one  only. 

3.  A  quotation  which  is  included  within  another  should 
be  enclosed  by  single  quotation  marks. 

Ex.  "On  one  occasion,'.'  says  Whittier,  "I  was  told  thiftt 
a  foreigner  had  applied  to  my  mother  for  lodging. 
*  What  if  a  son  of  mine  were  in  a  strange  land  ? '  she 
said  to  herself." 

4.  Titles  of  books,  essays,  etc.,  whether  or  not  preceded 
by  the  author's  name,  are  usually  enclosed  in  quotation 
marks. 

Ex.  "The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables"  was  warmly  wel- 
comed, both  at  home  and  abroad. 

Swift's   "Gulliver's   Travels"    is   one   of  the   greatest^ 
satires  ever  written.  <- 


70  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISE 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences  and  explain  your  use 
of  the  quotation  marks  : 

1.  Pooh  cried  Uncle  John  impatiently  let  us  have  some 
music 

2.  Had  he  said  the  captain  black  whiskers  and  a  red  coat  No 
answered  Anne  with  a  sigh  he  had  red  whiskers  and  a  black  coat 

3.  A  knot  can  choke  a  felon  into  clay 

A  not  will  save  him  spelt  without  the  k 

4.  Did  you  ever  tell  him  what  I  said  Johnny  Ignorance  is  bliss 
and  all  the  rest  of  that  nonsense 

5.  After  the  appearance  of  Longfellow's  poem  Weariness  Haw- 
thorne wrote  in  a  letter  to  a  friend  I  too  am  weary  and  look  forward 
to  the  Wayside  Inn 

6.  The  Essex  minstrel  has  written  a  number  of  children's  poems 
such  as  The  Robin  Red  Riding  Hood  and  King  Solomon  and  the 
Ants 

7.  Come  to  Concord  wrote  Ellery  Channing  to  Hawthorne  once 
upon  a  time  Emerson  is  away  and  nobody  here  to  bore  you 

8.  Bryant's  biographer  says  The  aged  poet  wrote  to  a  friend  Is 
there  a  penny-post  do  you  think  in  the  world  to  come  Do  people 
there  write  for  autographs  to  those  who  have  gained  a  little  notoriety 
Do  women  there  send  letters  asking  for  money 

9.  The  word  buxom  formerly  meant  obedient  How  odd  the  com- 
mandment in  its  old  form  sounds  to  our  modern  ears  Children  be 
buxom  to  your  parents 

10.  A  school  teaclier  tells  the  following  story  To  the  question 
who.  was  Esau  a  boy  wrote  this  remarkable  answer  Esau  wrote  a 
famous  book  of  fables  and  he  sold  the  copyright  of  them  for  a 
bottle  of  potash 

57.  Rules  for  the  dash.  The  dash,  though  less  commonly 
used  than  some  of  the  marks  of  punctuation,  is  very 
important.  Since  careless  writers  often  abuse  it,  the 
following  rules  deserve  careful  attention. 


REVIEW   OF  PUNCTUATION  71 

1.  The  dash  should  be  used  to  mark  sudden  changes  in 
sentiment  and  in  construction. 

Ex.    Have  you  ever  seen  —  but  of  course  you  never  liave  I 

2.  The  dash  may  be  used  to  mark  pauses  and  repetitions 
which  are  intended  for  elocutionary  effect. 

Ex.   The  king  of  France,  with  twice  ten  thousand  men, 

Marched  up  the  hill,  and  then  —  marched  down  again. 

At  last  she  said,  between  her  sobs,  "I  —  want  —  to  see 
—  the  —  ele  —  elephant." 

If  I  were  an  Americgin,  as  I  am  an  Englishman,  while 
a  foreign  troop  were  landed  in  my  country,  I  would 
never  lay  down  my  arms  —  never,  never,  never ! 

3.  Dashes  may  be  used  instead  of  commas  or  marks  of 
parenthesis  before  and  after  expressions  which  have  a 
closer  connection  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence  than 
would  be  indicated  by  the  marks  of  parenthesis. 

Ex.  Her  little  bii-d  —  a  poor  slight  thing  the  pressure  of  a 
finger  would  have  crushed  —  was  stirring  nimbly  in 
its  cage ;  and  the  strong  heart  of  its  child-mistress 
was  mute  and  motionless  forever. 

4.  A  dash  should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  series  of 
phrases  or  clauses  which  depend  upon  a  concluding 
clause.     (See  §  52,  3.) 

Ex.  Gold  and  cotton,  banks  and  railways,  crowded  ports 
and  populous  cities,  —  these  are  not  the  elements 
that  constitute  a  great  nation. 


72  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

5.  Expressions  coining  at  the  end  of  an  apparently 
completed  sentence,  but  referring  to  some  previous  part 
of  the  sentence,  should  be  preceded  by  a  dash. 

Ex.  Anon  the  bells  ceased,  and  the  woods,  and  the  clouds, 
and  the  whole  village,  and  the  very  air  itself  seemed 
to  pray  —  so  silent  was  it  everywhere. 

6.  The  dash  is  used  to  mark  the  omission  of  letters  and 
figures. 

Ex.   Mrs.  H d,  formerly  Miss  A — r— r  of  B Street,  was 

then  called  the  belle  of  the  city. 

Hawthorne  spent  the  winter  of  1851-52  at  West  Newton, 
near  Boston.  • 

See  Matt.  x.  4-7. 

EXERCISE 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  giving  the  rules  for 
all  the  points  which  you  insert : 

1.  But  the  folklore  of  the  early  days  where  is  it 

2.  Several  of  our  most  famous  authors  studied  law  Irving 
Bryant  Longfellow  Holmes  and  Lowell. 

3.  Our  hearts  our  hopes  our  prayers  our  tears 
Our  faith  triumphant  o'er  our  fears 

Are  all  with  thee  are  all  with  thee. 

4.  Approaching  the  head  of  the  bed  where  my  poor  young  com- 
panion with  throat  uncovered  was  lying  with  one  hand  the  monster 
grasped  his  knife  and  with  the  other  ah  cousin  with  the  other  he 
seized  a  ham. 

5.  Good  people  all  with  one  accord 
Lament  for  Madam  Blaize 
Who  never  wanted  a  good  word 
From  those  who  spoke  her  praise. 


REVIEW  OF  PUNCTUATION  i6 

6.  The  Hermit  of  Amesbury  the  Wood-thrush  of  Essex  the 
Martial  Quaker  the  Poet  of  Freedom  the  Poet  of  the  Moral  Senti- 
ment such  are  some  of  the  titles  bestowed  upon  Whittier  by  his 
admirers. 

7.  Statues  paintings  churches  poems  are  but  sliadows  of  himself 
shadows  in  marble  colors  stone  words. 

8.  Hawthorne's  complaints  about  his  pens  are  really  very  amus- 
ing to  those  people  and  their  name  is  legion  who  have  had  a  like 
difficulty  in  pleasing  themselves. 

9.  I  awok<3  from  this  dream  of  horror  and  found  that  I  was 
grasping  the  bedpost. 

10.  Take  the  poets,  we  proclaim  as  greater  than  Longfellow 
Browning  for  instance  or  Emerson  and  how  often  they  fail  to  express 
their  thoughts  so  that  anybody  can  enjoy  them  without  a  course  of 
lessons  from  an  experienced  professor. 

58.  Marks  of  parenthesis.  Marks  of  parenthesis  are  used 
to  enclose  expressions  which  have  no  essential  connection 
with  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  The  dash,  however,  is 
largely  superseding  these  marks. 

Ex.    Phcebus  (for  this  was  the  very  person  whom  they  were 
seeking)  'had  a  lyre  in  his  hands. 

Note.  —  In  reports  of  speeches,  the  marks  of  parenthesis 
are  used  to  enclose  the  name  of  a  person  who  has  been 
referred  to ;  also  to  enclose  exclamations  of  approval  or  dis- 
approval on  the  part  of  the  audience. 

Ex.    The  honorable  gentleman  (Mr.  Hoar)  has  referred  to 
my  war  record  (hear  !  hear  !). 

59.  Brackets.  Brackets  should  be  used  to  enclose  words 
or  phrases  which  are  entirely  independent  of  the  rest  of 
the  sentence.  They  are  usually  comments,  queries,  cor- 
rections, criticisms,  or  directions,  inserted  by  some  other 
person  than  the  original  writer  or  speaker. 


74  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Ex.  New  England  has  more  weather  to  the  square  inch  than 
any  other  country  on  the  globe.     [Laughter.] 

Governor  Winthrop  tells  us  of  visiting  Agawain,  and 
spending  the  Sabbath  with  them  [whom  ?],  as  thei/  were 
without  a  minister. 

Each  received  one  in  their  [his]  turn. 

[Enter  the  Fairies.]     O  Queen,  we  salute  thee  ! 

60.  Other  marks  used  in  writing.  Two  marks  in  common 
use  —  the  apostrophe  and  the  hyphen  —  need  to  be  studied 
carefully. 

The  apostrophe  is  the  sign  of  the  possessive  case.  It 
also  denotes  the  intentional  omission  of  a  letter  or  letters, 
and  is  used  to  form  the  plurals  of  letters  and  figures. 

Ex.    The  moon's  calm  beams  shone  o'er  the  earth. 

The  hyphen  is  used  to  separate  the  elements  of  a  com- 
pound word  and  to  divide  a  word  into  syllables.^ 
Ex.    Long-sufEering ;  co-op-er-a-tion. 

EXERCISE 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences  and  give  rules  for 
the  brackets  and  marks  of  parenthesis : 

1.  Of  the  old  garden  surrounding  the  house  Holmes  has  written 
eloquently  and  one  can  almost  see  it  for  himself  with  its  lilac  bushes 
its  pear  trees  its  peaches  for  they  raised  peaches  in  New  England  in 
those  days  its  lovely  nectarines  and  white  grapes. 

2.  Its  the  las  time  thet  I  shell  eer  address  ye 

But  you  11  soon  find  some  new'  tormentor  bless  ye     Tumultu- 
ous applause  and  cries  of  Go  on  Dont  stop 

1  When  the  first  syllable  consists  of  but'one  letter  it  is  not  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  word  at  the  end  of  a  line,  but  the  whole  word  is  placed  on  the 
next  line. 


REVIEW  OF  PUNCTUATION  75 

3.  Her  mind  was  thronged  with  delightful  thoughts  till  sleep  stole 
on  and  transformed  them  to  visions  like  the  breath  of  winter  but 
what  a  cold  comparison  working  fantastic  tracery  upon  a  window. 

4.  This  life  has  joys  for  you  and  I  me 
and  joys  that  riches  neer  could  buy 

5.  Mr.  Whittier  said  My  acquaintance  with  him  Garrison  com- 
menced in  boyhood. 

6.  Thou  happy  hapj)y  elf 

liut  stop  first  let  me  kiss  away  that  tear 
Thou  tiny  image  of  myself 

My  love  he 's  poking  peas  into  his  ear 

7.  In  one  of  the  queerest  corners  of  the  town  Marblehead  there 
stands  a  house  as  modest  as  the  Lee  house  was  magnificent. 

8.  He  Lee  Was  respected  by  friend  and  foe. 

9.  Tlie  gentle  and  innocent  creature  for  who  could  possibly 
doubt  that  he  was  so  pranced  round  among  the  children  as  sportively 
as  a  kitten. 

10.  On  rising  Doctor  Holmes  held  up  a  sheet  of  paper  and  said  You 
see  before  you  referring  to  the  pai)er  all  that  you  have  to  fear  or  hope. 

EXERCISE 

I 

Write  the  following  stoiy  with  correct  punctuation  ^ : 

king  frederick  of  prussia-was  one  day  travelling  when  he  came  to 
a  village  where  he  was  to  stay  an  hour  or  two  so  the  king  visited  the 
school  after  a  time  he  turned  to  the  teacher  and  said  he  would  like 
to  ask  the  children  a  few  questions  on  a  table  near  by  stood  a  large 
dish  of  oranges  the  king  took  up  one  of  the  oranges  and  said  to  what 
kingdom  does  tliis  belong  children  to  the  vegetable  kingdom  replied 
one  of  the  little  girls  and  to  what  kingdom  does  this  belong  said  he 
as  he  took  from  his  pocket  a  piece  of  gold  to  the  mineral  kingdom 
she  answered  and  to  what  kingdom  then  do  I  belong  my  child  he 
asked  thinking  of  course  she  would  answer  to  the  animal  kingdom 

1  Capitalization  is  of  course  included  in  the  term  "punctuation." 


76  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

the  little  girl  did  not  know  what  answer  to  make  she  feared  that  it 
would  not  seem  right  to  say  to  a  king  that  he  belonged  to  the  animal 
kingdom  well  said  the  king  can  you  not  answer  my  little  lady  the 
kind  words  and  gentle  look  of  the  king  gave  the  child  courage  and 
looking  up  into  his  face  she  replied  to  the  kingdom  of  heaven  sir  the 
king  deeply  moved  placed  his  hand  upon  her  head  and  said  god 
grant  that  I  may  be  found  worthy  of  that  kingdom 

II 

Punctuate  the  following  so  as  to  express  two  very  dif- 
ferent meanings : 

lord  palmerston  then  entered  on  his  head  a  white  hat  upon  his 
feet  large  but  well  polished  boots  upon  his  brow  a  dark  cloud  in  his 
hand  a  faithful  walking  stick  in  his  eye  a  menacing  glare  saying 
nothing. 

Ill 

Punctuate  the  following  anecdote: 

mr  longfellow  used  to  tell  the  following  incident  I  was  once 
riding  in  London  when  a  laborer  approached  the  carriage  and  asked 
are  you  the  writer  of  the  psalm  of  life  I  am  will  you  allow  me  to 
shake  hands  with  you  we  clasped  hands  warmly  the  carriage  passed 
on  and  I  saw  him  no  more  but  I  remember  that  as  one  of  the  most 
gratifying  compliments  I  ever  received  because  it  was  so  sincere. 

IV 

Punctuate  the  following  in  two  ways :  one  to  represent 
a  very  bad  man,  and  the  other  a  very  good  man : 

He  is  an  old  man  and  experienced  in  vice  and  wickedness  he  is 
never  found  in  opposing  the  works  of  iniquity  he  takes  delight  in 
the  downfall  of  his  neighbors  he  never  rejoices  in  the  prosperity 
of  his  fellow-creatures  he  is  always  ready  to  assist  in  destroying  the 
peace  of  society  he  takes  no  pleasure  in  serving  the  Lord  he  is  uncom- 
monly diligent  in  sowing  discord  among  his  friends  and  acquaintances 


REVIEW  OF  PUNCTUATION  77 

he  takes  no  pride  in  laboring  to  promote  the  cause  of  Christianity  he 
has  not  been  negligent  in  endeavoring  to  stigmatize  all  public  teachers 
he  makes  no  effort  to  subdue  his  evil  passions  he  strives  hard  to 
build  up  satans  kingdom  he  lends  no  aid  to  the  support  of  the  gospel 
among  the  heathen  he  contributes  largely  to  the  devil  he  will  never 
go  to  heaven  he  must  go  where  he  will  receive  the  just  recompense  of 
reward. 


Write  the  following  extract  with  careful  attention  to 
punctuation  and  arrangement: 

As  bess  ran  she  was  suddenly  stopped  at  the  gate  by  the  sight  of 
a  carriage  which  had  just  driven  up  and  out  of  which  now  stepped 
aunt  maria  and  aunt  maria's  husband  uncle  daniel  these  were  the 
very  grimmest  and  grandest  of  all  the  relations  for  one  awful  moment 
bess  stood  stunned  then  her  anxiety  for  torn  overcame  every  other  con- 
sideration and  before  aunt  maria  could  say  how  do  you  do  elizabeth 
she  caught  her  uncle  by  his  august  coat  tail  and  in  a  piteous  voice 
besought  him  to  come  and  pull  on  the  rope  elizabeth  said  uncle  daniel 
who  was  a  very  slow  man  why  should  T  pull  on  a  rope  my  dear  oh 
come  quick  hurry  faster  toms  down  in  the  well  cried  bess  torn  down 
a  well  how  did  he  get  there  he  went  down  for  the  teapot  sobbed  bess 
the  silver  teapot  and  we  cant  pull  him  up  again  and  hes  cramped 
with  cold" oh  do  hurry  uncle  daniel  leisurely  looked  down  at  tom  then 
he  slowly  took  off  his  coat  and  as  slowly  carried  it  into  the  house 
stopped  to  give  an  order  to  his  coachman  came  with  measured  tread 
to  the  three  frightened  children  then  took  hold  of  the  rope  gave  a 
long  strong  calm  pull  and  in  an  instant  tom  dripping  with  coolness 
arose  from  the  well. 

SUMMARY 

61.  The  chief  uses  of  punctuation  marks  are  to  make  the 
meaning  clear  and  to  show  the  grammatical  construction. 
The  punctuation  should  be  inserted  during  the  writing 
and  should  be  as  simple  as  possible.     The  most  valuable 


T8  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

helps  in  making  a  writer's  meaning  clear  are  capital  letters, 
periods,  commas,  and  quotation  marks. 

Capitals  should  be  used  to  begin  the  first  word  of  every 
sentence,  the  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry,  the  first 
word  of  every  direct  quotation,  every  proper  noun  or 
proper  adjective,  every  word  of  an  official  title,  every 
important  word  of  a  literary  title,  all  names  of  the  Deity, 
names  of  the  days  of  the  week  and  the  months  of  the 
year,  words  representing  important  events  in  history,  and 
names  of  personified  objects.  Tlie  words  I  and  0  should 
always  be  capitals. 

The  period  should  usually  follow  a  declarative  or  imper- 
ative sentence  and  an  abbreviation. 

The  comma,  the  semicolon,  and  the  colon  mark  three 
degrees  of  separation  in  the  parts  of  the  sentence  :  the 
comma  being  used  to  indicate  the  smallest  degree  of 
separation,  the  semicolon  a  greater  degree,  and  the  colon 
the  greatest. 

The  comma  should  be  used  to  separate  from  each  other, 
or  to  set  off  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  words  or  phrases 
in  pairs,  contrasted  words  or  phrases,  inverted  expressions, 
independent  adverbs,  intermediate  expressions,  words  or 
phrases  in  a  series,  nouns  in  apposition,  nouns  independent 
by  address,  phrases  used  as  nominative  absolute,  unrestrict- 
ive  relative  clauses,  dependent  and  conditional  clauses, 
and  coordinate  expressions.  Short  quotations  or  expres- 
sions resembling  quotations  should  be  preceded  by  commas; 
and  in  a  compound  sentence  containing  a  common  verb 
the  omission  of  this  verb  in  any  clause  except  the  first 
should  be  marked  by  a  comma. 

The  semicolon  is  used  to  set  off  subdivided  members 


REVIEW  OF  PUNCTUATION  79 

of  compound  sentences,  short  sentences  closely  connected 
in  meaning,  clauses  having  a  common  dependence,  addi- 
tional clauses  with  a  conjunction,  and  before  viz.,  etc.,  when 
introducing  particulars  in  apposition  with  a  general  term. 

The  colon  is  used  to  set  off  subdivided  members  of 
compound  sentences,  additional  clauses  without  a  conjunc- 
tion, formal  quotations,  and  particulars  in  apposition  with 
a  general  term. 

The  interrogation  point  is  used  after  direct  questions. 
The  exclamation  point  is  used  after  an  expression  of 
strong  emotion. 

Every  direct  quotation  should  be  enclosed  in  quota- 
tion marks.  A  quotation  within  a  quotation  should  be 
enclosed  by  single  quotation  marks. 

The  dash,  the  marks  of  parenthesis,  and  the  brackets  are 
less  frequently  used  than  the  other  marks  of  punctuation. 
The  dash  should  be  used  to  indicate  an  abrupt  change,  a 
rhetorical  pause  or  repetition,  a  parenthetical  expression, 
a  dependent  expression,  a  detached  expression,  or  an  omis- 
sion. The  marks  of  parenthesis  should  enclose  expressions 
which  have  even  less  connection  with  the  rest  of  the 
sentence  than  would  be  indicated  by  the  use  of  dashes  or 
commas.  The  brackets  should  be  used  to  enclose  words  or 
phrases  which  are  entirely  independent  of  the  rest  of  the 
sentence. 

The  apostrophe  is  the  sign  of  the  possessive  case,  but  it 
also  denotes  the  intentional  omission  of  a  letter  or  letters, 
and  is  used  to  form  the  plurals  of  letters  and  figures.  The 
hyphen  is  used  to  separate  the  parts  of  a  compound  word 
and  to  .divide  a  word  into  syllables. 


CHAPTER   III 
RETELLING  ANOTHER  PERSON'S   THOUGHT 

I  cannot  tell  how  the  truth  may  be ; 

I  say  the  tale  as  't  was  said  to  me.  —  Scott. 

I.     INTRODUCTION 

62.  The  paragraph.  In  the  exercises  in  the  Review  of 
Grammar,  only  single  sentences  were  required.  It  is 
desirable  to  master  thoroughly  the  brief  method  of 
expressing  thought  afforded  by  the  sentence.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  evident  that  when  thought  on  any  given 
topic  is  to  be  expressed  at  all  fully,  several  sentences  may 
be  needed.  A  group  of  sentences  on  one  topic  is  called  a 
paragraph.  Hereafter  the  exercises  will  call  for  this  unit 
of  writing. 

63.  General  directions  for  the  form  of  written  work.  Now 
that  the  exercises  are  growing  longer,  it  will  be  of  value 
to  consider  more  carefully  the  mechanical  form  of  the 
written  work.  That  form  will  varj^  somewhat  in  different 
schools,  but  when  it  has  once  been  agreed  upon  it  should 
be  consistently  followed  by  the  class.  If  no  other  direc- 
tions are  given  by  the  teacher,  these  may  be  followed. 

1.  Writing  Materials,  Use  what  is  generally  called 
theme  paper.  Use  black  ink.  Keep  an  eraser  and  a  clean 
blotter  at  hand. 

80 


RETELLING   ANOTHER   PERSON'S    THOUGHT        81 

2.  The  Title.  Write  the  title  in  the  middle  of  the 
blank  space  at  the  head  of  the  paper,  i.e.  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  from  the  top.  Arrange  the  title  so 
that  the  spaces  at  the  right  and  left  of  it  shall  be  equal. 
If  the  title  Ls  so  long  as  to  need  two  lines,  put  as  much 
of  it  as  will  look  well  on  the  first  line,  and  the  rest  on  the 
next  line,  thus  : 

My  P^irst  Ride  on  the  Plains  in  a 
Prairie  Schooner 

Begin  all  the  important  words  in  the  title  with  capitals. 

3.  Indenting.  Begin  each  paragraph  about  an  inch  and 
a  half  from  the  left-hand  edge  of  the  paper.  This  is  called 
indenting. 

4.  Margin.  On  all  lines,  except  where  paragraphs  begin, 
leave  a  uniform  margin  of  at  least  an  inch  at  the  left- 
hand  side.  Leave  no  margin  at  the  right  of  the  page. 
Of  course  a  long  word  or  syllable  is  not  to  be  crowded 
into  the  line  for  the  sake  of  using  the  space.  Care  in 
the  arrangement  of  words  and  in  the  division  of  sylla- 
bles by  means  of  the  hyphen  will  give  a  sufficiently  neat 
effect. 

5.  Pages.  Write  on  one  side  of  the  paper  only.  If 
the  exercise  is  a  long  one,  number  the  pages  at  the 
top. 

6.  Folding.  Having  arranged  the  sheets  carefully  in 
order,  fold  them  together  once  lengthwise. 

7.  Superscription.  Place  the  folded  exercise  so  that  the 
loose  edges  are  toward  your  right  hand.  On  the  right- 
hand  half  of  the  blank  outside  page,  write  the  superscrip- 
tion, beginning  at  about  two  inches  from  the  top  of  the 


82  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

page.     The  superscription  should  be  in  four  lines,  and 
should  include  title,  class,  name,  and  date,  as  follows: 

Paul  Revere's  Ride, 

English  I, 
Charles  R.  Jefferson, 
October  21,  1901. 
8.  In  General. 

(1)  Write  neatly   without  flourishes,    conspicuous 
shading,  or  any  other  peculiarity. 

(2)  If  you  must  erase  words,  use  a  good  ink  eraser 
or  a  sharp  penknife. 

(3)  Do  not  write  above  the  line  words  which  you 
have  omitted,  if  it  can  possibly  be  avoided. 

(4)  Never  present  a  soiled  or  blotted  exercise. 

(5)  Take  pride   in   making  a   written   exercise  as 
attractive  in  every  way  as  possible. 


II.     RETELLING   ANOTHER   PERSON'S  EXACT 
THOUGHT 

64.  Value  of  retelling  another  person's  thought.  One  may 
express  his  own  thought  on  a  given  subject,  or  retell  the 
thought  of  another.  It  will  be  well  for  the  student  to 
practice  for  a  time  the  task  of  retelling  in  his  own  words 
the  thoughts  of  others. 

Not  only  does  this  work  make  a  natural  and  helpful 
step  to  original  composition,  but  it  also  cultivates  accu- 
rate hearing  and  reading.  If  all  people  heard  correctly, 
much  gossip,  slander,  and  quarreling  would  be  avoided. 
If   all  persons  really  read,  —  i.e.  "  thought  the   author's 


RETELLING  ANOTHER   PERSON'S    THOUGHT        83 

thought  after  him,"  —  the  world  would  be  much  wiser 
than  it  now  is.  The  person  we  like  to  employ  in  business, 
or  to  have  as  a  friend,  is  the  one  who  can  be  trusted 
"to  get  things  straight."  This  '* getting  things  straight" 
is  not  merely  a  matter  of  honesty  or  cleverness,  but  is 
quite  as  much  a  matter  of  attention  and  of  care  in  retell- 
ing. The  habits  of  attention  and  of  care  in  retelling  can 
be  and  should  be  cultivated. 

65.  Methods  of  retelling  another  person's  thought.  There 
are  three  ways  of  reproducing  another's  thought :  we  may 
retell  it  exactly,  we  may  condense  it,  we  may  expand  it. 

66.  By  retelling  another  person's  thought  exactly  is  meant 
reproducing  as  nearly  as  possible  his  ideas  in  words  of  your 
own. 

Ex.  1.  He  had  an  insuperable  aversion  to  any  kind  of  profit- 
able labor.  —  Irving. 

Retold.  His  dislike  for  any  kind  of  useful  work  was  so 
intense  that  he  could  not  overcome  it. 

Ex.  2.    Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us 
We  can  make  our  lives  sublime, 
And  departing  leave  behind  us 
Footprints  on  the  sands  of  Time. 

Longfellow. 

Retold.  By  seeing  what  great  men  have  done,  we  are 
reminded  that  we,  too,  can  do  something  true  and 
noble,  which,  when  we  are  dead,  will  be  remem- 
bered by  those  who  live  after  us. 

67.  Value  of  retelling  another  person's  thought  exactly.  Before 
we  can   reproduce    another's   ideas  with   precision  it  is 


84  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

necessary  to  see  just  what  lie  means.  Retelling  exactly 
develops  appreciation  of  the  best  writers ;  for  the  pupil  will 
generally  find  that  he  cannot  devise  a  new  expression  for 
the  thought  which  will  equal  the  original  in  clearness, 
force,  or  charm.  Further,  it  is  one  of  the  best  methods 
of  strengthening  one's  vocabulary. 

68.  General  directions  for  retelling  what  is  read.  It  is  easier 
to  retell  what  one  reads  than  what  one  hears.  The 
pupil  will  be  given  much  practice  in  reproducing  closely 
what  he  has  read.  The  following  directions  for  the  work 
should  be  studied  carefully. 

1.  Read  the  whole  selection  which  is  to  be  retold.  Do 
not  try  to  write  until  you  have  very  definite  ideas  con- 
cerning what  you  have  read. 

2.  Next,  substitute  the  best  possible  words  and  phrases 
of  your  own,  retaining  only  those  original  words  and 
phrases  which  cannot  be  changed  without  changing  the 
sense.  Use  the  dictionary  carefully,  selecting  from  the 
several  meanings  given  the  one  most  appropriate  for 
the  place. 

3.  Be  careful  not  to  make  this  work  an  exercise  in  mere 
substitution  of  words.  The  following  extract  from  a  pupil's 
notebook  shows  how  absurd  the  result  of  such  substitution 
may  sometimes  be.  The  pupil  was  asked  to  retell  closely 
these  lines  from  Scott's  "  Lady  of  the  Lake  "  : 

The  antler'd  monarch  of  the  waste 
Sprung  from  his  heathery  couch  in  haste. 
But,  ere  his  fleet  career  he  took, 
The  dew-drops  from  his  flanks  he  shook ; 
Like  crested  leader  proud  and  high, 
Toss'd  his  beam'd  frontlet  to  the  sky. 


RETELLING   ANOTUER   PERSON'S    THOUGHT         85 

The  pupil's  version  was  as  follows : 

"  The  ruler  of  the  desert,  with  his  branchiri_:^  horn,  rose  quickly 
from  his  bed  among  the  heather.  But,  before  he  took  his  swift 
race-course,  he  shook  oif  the  dew-drops  from  his  fleshy  sides ;  and 
like  a  tall  and  proud  leader  with  a  coat-of-arms  tossed  to  the  sky 
his  little  front,  with  its  many  beams." 

4.  It  is  not  necessary  to  follow  the  original  construc- 
tion of  a  sentence.  Variety  may  be  secured  by  changing 
from  indirect  to  direct  discourse,  or  from  a  declarative 
sentence  to  an  interrogative:  or  an  exclamatory  sentence. 
There  will  be  more  change  of  construction  in  retelling 
poetry  than  in  retelling  prose. 

5.  In  changing  poetry  to  prose,  carefully  avoid  any 
suggestion  of  rhyme.  Avoid  also  the  use  of  such  words 
as  morn,  eve,  oer,  ere,  methinks,  etc. 

EXERCISE 

I 

Retell  carefully  the  thoughts  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  The  cognomen  of  Crane  was  not  inapplicable  to  his  person. 

2.  The  idol  of  to-day  pushes  the  hero  of  yesterday  out  of  recollec- 
tion ;  and  will,  in  turn,  be  supplanted  by  his  successor  of  to-morrow, 

3.  Once  more  he  cudgeled  the  sides  of  the  inflexible  Gunpowder, 
and,  shutting  his  eyes,  broke  forth  with  involuntary  fervor  into  a 
psalm  tune. 

4.  The  cavalcade  came  prancing  along  the  road  with  a  great 
clatter  of  hoofs  and  a  mighty  cloud  of  dust,  which  rose  up  so  dense 
and  high  that  the  visage  of  the  mountain-side  was  completely  hidden 
from  Ernest's  eyes. 

5.  It  seemed  as  if  an  enormous  giant,  or  a  Titan,  had  sculptured 
his  own  likeness  on  the  precipice. 

6.  The  world  is  full  of  judgment  days,  and  in  every  assembly  that 
a  man  enters,  in  every  action  he  attempts,  he  is  gauged  and  stamped. 


86  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

7.  Like   an  awakened  conscience,  the  sea  was  moaning  and 

tossing. 
Beating  remorseful  and  loud  the  mutable  sands  of  the  sea- 
shore. 

8.  Not  what  we  give,  but  what  we  share, 
For  the  gift  without  the  giver  is  bare; 
Who  gives  himself  with  his  alms  feeds  three. 
Himself,  his  hungering  neighbor,  and  Me. 

9.  Howe'er  it  be,  it  seems  to  me 
'T  is  only  noble  to  be  good. 

Kind  hearts  are  more  than  coronets, 
And  simple  faith  than  Norman  blood. 
10.    Breathes  there  the  man  with  soul  so  dead, 
Who  never  to  himself  hath  said. 
This  is  my  own,  my  native  land  ! 
Whose  heart  hath  ne'er  within  him  burned, 
As  home  his  footsteps  he  hath  turned 
From  wandering  on  a  foreign  strand? 

II 

Retell  closely  this  description  of  Sleepy  Hollow: 

From  the  listless  repose  of  the  place,  and  the  peculiar  character  of 
its  inhabitants,  who  are  descendants  from  the  original  Dutch  set- 
tlers, this  sequestered  glen  has  long  been  known  by  the  name  of 
Sleepy  Hollow,  and  its  rustic  lads  are  called  the  Sleepy  Hollow  boys 
throughout  all  the  neighboring  country.  A  drowsy,  dreamy  influ- 
ence seems  to  hang  over  the  land,  and  to  pervade  the  very  atmos- 
phere. Some  say  that  the  place  was  bewitched  by  a  high  German 
doctor,  during  the  early  days  of  the  settlement ;  others,  that  an  old 
Indian  chief,  the  prophet  or  wizard  of  his  tribe,  held  his  pow-wows 
there  before  the  country  was  discovered  by  Master  Hendrik  Hud- 
son. Certain  it  is,  the  place  still  continues  under  the  sway  of  some 
witching  power,  that  holds  a  spell  over  the  minds  of  the  good 
people,  causing  them  to  w^alk  in  a  continual  reverie.  They  are  given 
to  all  kinds  of  marvellous  beliefs ;  are  subject  to  trances  and  visions  ; 


RETELLING   ANOTHER   PERSON'S    THOUGHT         87 

■ind  frequently  see  strange  sights,  and  hear  music  and  voices  in  the 
air.  The  whole  neighborliood  abounds  with  local  tales,  haunted 
spots,  and  twilight  superstitions:  stars  shoot  and  meteors  glare 
oftener  across  the  valley  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  country,  and 
the  nightmare  (with  her  w  hole  nine-fold)  seems  to  make  it  the  favor- 
ite scene  of  her  gambols.  —  Ikving. 

Suggestions  for  Study  before  retelling 
The  Description  of  Sleepy  Hollow 

1.  Where  was  Sleepy  Hollow  ? 

2.  What  facts  gave  it  its  name  ? 

3.  What  condition  of  Sleepy  Hollow  does  the  author 
emphasize  ? 

4.  What  causes  for  this  condition  of  things  are  suggested  ? 

5.  What  was  the  effect  on  the  people  who  lived  there  ? 

Translation 

69.  Translation  a  valuable  method  of  retelling  exactly.  It  is 
a  well-known  fact  that  translation  from  a  foreign  language 
is  one  of  the  best  tests  of  a  pupil's  ability  to  use  his  own 
language,  as  well  as  to  understand  the  foreign  writer. 

It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  translate  literally ;  that  is, 
to  give  word  by  word,  in  the  most  exact  manner,  the 
English  equivalent  of  each  foreign  construction.  Usually, 
however,  this  translating  literally  either  does  not  give 
the  shade  of  thought  intended  or  violates  English  usage. 
Accumcy  and  linguistic  propriety  can  be  obtained  only 
by  translating  freely ;  that  is,  by  keeping  close  to  the 
ideas  of  the  original,  but  turning  the  foreign  idioms  into 
equivalent  English  idioms.  This  may  be  shown  by  a  f§^w 
illustrations  from  the  Latin. 


88  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Latin  Idioms  English  Idioms 

A  book  is  to  me.  T  have  a  book. 

Clad  in  armor  as  to  his  head.  Plis  head  covered  by  a  helmet. 

1  The  army  having  been  j^ut  to  After  the  army  had  been  put  to 

flight,  Caesar  went  into  winter         flight,  Caesar  went  into  winter 

quarters.  quarters. 

A  liberal  translation  is  usually  the  one  to  be  desired. 


III.     CONDENSING  ANOTHER  PERSON'S  THOUGHT 

70.  In  retelling  by  condensing,  the  most  important  ideas  must 
be  given,  and  in  the  same  order,  but  the  details  may  be  omitted. 

Ex.    In  the  old  days  (a  custom  laid  aside 

With  breeches  and  cocked  hats)  the  people  sent 

Their  wisest  men  to  make  the  public  laws. 

And  so,  from  a  brown  homestead,  where  the  Sound 

Drinks  the  small  tribute  of  the  Mianas, 

Waved  over  by  the  woods  of  Rippowams, 

And  hallowed  by  pure  lives  and  tranquil  deaths, 

Stamford  sent  up  to  the  councils,  of  the  State 

AVisdom  and  grace  in  Abraham  JL)avenport. 

Whittier. 

Condensed.  More  than  a  hundred  years  ago  it  was  the 
custom  to  choose  the  wisest  men  to  make  the  laws.  So 
Stamford  sent  Abraham  Davenport  to  the  Legislature. 

These  condensed  sentences  tell  the  main  points,  and 
only  those  —  wlio  was  sent,  whence,  whither,  and  when 
and  why.  If  we  arrange  these  points  in  the  proper  order, 
we  shall  have  an  Outline. 

(1)  When  (2)  Why  (3)  Whence 

(4)  W^ho  (5)  Whither 

*The  nominative  absolute  construction  is  allowable  in  English,  but  there 
is  a  growing  tendency  to  replace  it  by  the  clause. 


RETELLING  ANOTHER  PERSON'S    THOUGHT        89 

71.  Value  of  retelling  by  condensing.  It  teaches  the  pupil 
to  select  the  really  important  ideas  from  whatever  he  is 
hearing  or  reading.  This  is  especially  valuable  in  taking 
notes  and  in  writing  examination  papers  (see  §§  73-79). 
It  helps  him  to  see  clearly  the  relation  of  the  different 
parts  of  that  which  he  is  retelling.  It  helps  him  to 
express  himself  clearly,  concisely,  and  forcibly.  Young 
writers  are  likely  to  use  too  many  words  to  express  an 
idea,  a  habit  which  this  retelling  by  condensing  tends  to 
overcome. 

72.  General  directions  for  retelling  by  condensing. 

1.  Read  carefully  until  you  have  a  clear  "  mental 
picture  "  of  people,  places,  and  events.  Be  sure  that  you 
understand  the  order  of  the  events  and  the  relation  of 
the  parts,  so  that  when  you  condense  you  will  not  give  a 
false  idea  by  leaving  out  essential  facts,  or  by  putting  in 
unnecessary  details. 

2.  Make  an  outline.  This  should  be  brief,  consisting 
of  the  few  absolutely  necessary  topics,  expressed  as  con- 
cisely as  possible,  and  arranged  in  proper  order. 

3.  Decide  what  points  you  ought  to  say  most  about ; 
that  is,  what  are  most  important  and  most  necessary. 
Unless  you  plan  your  work  carefully,  there  is  danger  that 
you  will  write  too  fully  about  the  first  topic  and  not  fully 
enough  about  the  last  one. 

4.  Write  clearly  and  briefly  what  you  wish  to  say  about 
each  of  the  topics.  If  you  are  condensing  poetry,  avoid 
any  effect  of  rhyme  or  any  borrowing  of  the  author's 
poetic  language. 


90  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISE 

I 

Condense  this  long  sentence : 

Thus  one  object  of  curiosity  succeeded  another ;  hill,  valley,  stream, 
and  woodland  flitted  by  me  like  the  shifting  scenes  of  a  magic- 
lantern,  and  one  train  of  thought  gave  place  to  another,  till,  at 
length,  in  the  after  part  of  the  day,  we  entered  the  broaa\and  shady 
avenue  of  fine  old  trees  which  leads  to  the  western  gate  9f  Rouen, 
and  a  few  moments  afterwards  were  lost  in  the  crowds  and  confu- 
sion of  its  narrow  streets.  —  Longfellow. 

Suggestions.  Tell  what  we  saw,  whfm  we  arrived,  at 
what  place,  and  how  our  journey  ended.  Make  three  short 
sentences. 

II 

Condense  this  selection  from  Whittier's  ''  The  Pipes  at 
Lucknow,"  writing  not  more  than  six  sentences : 

Day  by  day  the  Indian  tiger 
Louder  yelled,  and  nearer  crept; 
Round  and  round  the  jungle-serpent 
Near  and  nearer  circles  swept. 
"  Pray  for  rescue,  wives  and  mothers,  — 
Pray  to-day  !  "  the  soldier  said : 
"  To-morrow,  death 's  between  us 
And  the  wrong  and  shame  we  dread." 

O,  they  listened,  looked,  and  waited, 
Till  their  hope  became  despair ; 
And  the  sobs  of  low  bewailing 
Filled  the  pauses  of  their  prayer. 
Then  up  spake  a  Scottish  maiden. 
With  her  ear  unto  the  ground  : 
"Dinna  ye  hear  it?  —  dinna  ye  hear  it? 
The  pipes  o'  Havelock  sound!" 


RETELLING  ANOTHER   PERSON'S    THOUGHT        91 

Hushed  the  wounded  man   liis  groaning; 

Hushed  the  wife  her  little  ones  ; 

Alone  they  heard  the  druni-roU 

And  the  roar  of  Sepoy  guns. 

But  to  sounds  of  home  and  cliildhood 

The  Highland  ear  was  true  ;  — 

As  her  mother's  cradle-crooning  ^ 

The  mountain  pipes  she  knew. 

Like  the  march  of  soundless  music 

Through  tlie  vision  of  the  seer, 

More  of  feeling  than  of  hearing,  ^ 

Of  the  heart  than  of  the  ear, 

She  knew  the  droning  pibroch, 

She  knew  the  Canjpbell's  call  :  - 

"  Hark  !  hear  ye  no'  !Mac(Jregor's,  — 

The  grandest  o'  them  all  !  " 

O,  they  listened,  dumb  and  breathless, 
And  they  caught  the  sound  at  last ; 
Faint  and  far  beyond  the  Goomtee 
Rose  and  fell  the  piper's  blast  ! 
Then  a  burst  of  wild  thanksgiving 
Mingled  woman's  voice  and  man's  ; 
"  God  be  praised  !    the  march  of  Havelock  ! 
The  piping  of  the  clans  !  " 

Louder,  nearer,  fierce  as  vengeance. 
Sharp  and  shrill  as  swords  at  strife, 
Came  the  wild  MacGregor's  clan-call. 
Stinging  all  the  air  to  life. 
But  when  the  far-off  dust-cloud 
To  plaided  legions  grew. 
Full  tenderly  and  blithesomely 
The  pipes  of  rescue  blew  ! 

Round  the  silver  domes  of  Lucknow, 
Moslem  mosque  and  Pagan  shrine. 


92  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Breathed  the  air  to  Britons  dearest, 
The  air  of  Auld  Lang  Syne. 
O'er  the  cruel  roll  of  war-drums 
Rose  that  sweet  and  home-like  strain ; 
And  the  tartan  clove  the  turban, 
As  the  Goomtee  cleaves  the  plain. 

Whittier. 

Suggestions  for  Study  before  condensing 
The  Pipes  at  Lucknow 

1.  Where  is  Lucknow  ?     (See  Geographical  Gazetteer.) 

2.  What  people  were  shut  up  there  ?     Why  ? 

3.  Who  saved  them  ?  Of  what  nationality  were  the 
rescuers  ? 

4.  Who  first  heard  the  bagpipes  ? 

5.  What  were  they  playing  at  first  ? 

6.  What  did  they  play  as  they  came  nearer  ? 

7.  What  was  the  effect  of  the  music  on  the  people  in  the 
city? 

8.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  following  words  and 
phrases  :  Sepoy,  Highland,  cradle-crooning,  seer,  pibroch, 
Goomtee,  clan-call,  Moslem  mosque,  Auld  Lang  Syne,  tartan 
clove  the  turban  ? 

Ill 
Condense  into  a  single  paragraph  each  of  these  stories : 

1.  The  Storming  of  Front-de-Boeuf's  Castle  in  Scott's  ''  Ivanhoe." 

2.  The  Experiences  of  Rip  Van  Winkle  in  Irving's  "  Sketch  Book." 

3.  A  story  that  the  teacher  has  read  to  the  class. 

Note-Taking 

73.  One  of  the  most  valuable  ways  of  retelling  by  condensing 
Is  taking  notes  of  what  one  reads  or  hears.     The  student  will 


RETELLING  ANOTHER   PERSON'S    THOUGHT        93 

have  frequent  occasion  to  make  reports  on  many  subjects, 
and  the  sooner  he  begins  to  take  good  notes  the  easier 
the  work  will  be. 

74.  Taking  notes  of  what  one  reads.  When  taking  notes 
of  what  he  reads  the  student  can  keep  the  printed  expres- 
sion of  the  thought  before  his  eye  until  his  mind  has  fully 
grasped  that  thought. 

The  following  extract  from  a  pupil's  notebook  will 
show  one  good  form  of  this  work.  No  attempt  is  here 
made  at  subdivision  of  the  topics,  for  practice  in  that 
work  follows  later  (see  §§  140-145).  The  main  object 
here  is  to  find  the  few  main  facts  stated  in  the  te;xt  on 
which  the  notes  are  based,  and  the  essential  details  in 
connection  with  those  facts. 


Stoky  of  Cindekklla 

1.  Death  of  C.'s  mother  —  farewell  words  —  C.'s  grief. 

2.  C.'s  stepsisters  —  jealous,  selfish,  cruel. 

S.  Presents  from  the  fair  —  beautiful  dresses  for  one 
sister  —  pearls  and  precious  stones  for  the  other  —  for 
C.  first  branch  that  knocked  her  father's  hat  on  his  way 
home. 

4.  C.'s  efforts  to  get  to  the  festival  —  hard  conditions  of 
her  stepmother  —  help  of  the  birds. 

5.  First  night  —  dance  with  the  prince  —  escape  through 
the  pigeon  house. 

6.  Second  night  —  loss  of  the  slipper  in  the  pitch. 

7.  Test  of  the  slipper  —  stepsisters'  vain  attempts  to  make 
their  feet  fit  —  C.'s  success  and  happiness. 


94  COMPOSITION  ANi)  RHETORIC 

75.  General  directions  for  taking  notes  of  what  one  reads. 

1.  Read  the  selection  through  rapidly,  but  attentively, 
for  a  clear  idea  of  the  author's  statement. 

2.  Read  it  again  more  carefully  for  the  details.  Make 
your  notes  as  you  go  along,  remembering  that  notes  should 
he  neither  so  many  as  to  he  confusing^  nor  so  few  as  to  he 
misleading.  It  is  not  necessary  to  make  complete  state- 
ments, or  to  give  all  the  details.  A  few  carefully  chosen 
"catch-words"  will  bring  the  story  back  when  you  come 
to  rewrite  it.  Tliese  "catch-words"  not  only  save  time 
but  also  do  away  with  copying  the  author's  own  words,  a 
habit  w^hich  so  often  makes  the  work  of  young  writers 
uninteresting. 

3.  Number  the  notes  on  each  topic.  It  will  be  seen 
that  most  selections  on  which  the  notes  are  based  are 
arranged  in  groups  of  sentences,  called  paragraphs^  each 
as  a  rule  dealing  with  a  single  topic.  This  arrangement 
of  the  sentences  by  paragraphs  will  be  of  great  use  to 
the  pupil  in  selecting  the  essential  ideas. 

4.  When  the  notes  are  finished,  correct  them  by  com- 
parison with  the  original  text. 

76.  Taking  notes  of  what  one  hears.  In  taking  notes  of 
what  one  hears  one  must  give  the  closest  attention  both 
to  the  separate  statements  and  to  their  connection,  in  order 
to  understand  them  before  the  speaker  passes  to  something 
else.  If  a  statement  is  not  understood  at  first,  there  is 
no  chance  to  hear  it  a  second  time,  as  there  would  be 
to  read  it  a  second  time.  Taking  notes  of  what  is 
heard  ^vill  keep  the  pupil  wide  awake  and  help  him  to 


RETELLING  ANOTHER  PERSON'S    THOUGHT        95 

grasp  the  exact  thought  of  the  speaker.  Much  practice 
will  be  needed,  but  if  the  pupil  of  average  talent  i.s 
persistent  and  patient,  he  will  learn  to  take  notes  rapidly 
and  accurately. 

It  will  be  well  to  begin  by  taking  notes  of  some  short 
and  simple  statements ;  as,  for  instance,  some  directions  that 
the  teacher  has  given  the  class. 

Perhaps  the  directions  were :  ''  For  the  next  lesson  in 
History  you  may  review  to-day's  lesson,  and  study  in 
advance  pages  38-48.  Be  prepared  to  answer  the  questions 
on  page  48.  Any  extra  time  you  have  you  may  spend  in 
reading  Chapter  XI  of  the  '  Life  of  Washington,'  which 
will  be  found  in  the  large  bookcase,  on  the  second  shelf 
from  the  bottom."  You  have  listened  attentively  to  the 
directions.  As  soon  as  you  are  at  liberty  to  do  so,  write 
in  a  little  book  which  you  reserve  for  such  notes : 

Lesson  fou  Friday,  November  15 

History.  —  Review,  pp.  30-38. 
Advance,  pp.  38-48. 
Answer  questions,  p.  48. 

Read  "  Life  of  Washington,"  Chap.  XL     (See  large 
■  bookcase,  second  shelf  from  bottom.) 

After  you  have  practiced  recording  directions  or  short 
speeches,  try  something  longer  and  harder.  On  the  next 
page  will  be  found  tlie  uncorrected  notes  taken  by  a 
fifteen-year-old  boy  in  a  Vermont  academy.  They  are 
not  perfect,  but  tliey  will  be  suggestive.  They  were 
taken  in  brief  form  during  the  speecli  and  expanded  next 
day. 


96  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

(First  form  of  the  notes  taken  during  the  speech.) 

Notp:s  of  a  Talk!  on  "  Patriotism  in  the  Public 
Schools  " 

1.  Introduction  :  Meaning  of  patriotism  —  value  in  public 
schools. 

2.  How  shown:  flag  —  patriotic  songs  —  American  heroes — • 
respect  for  laws  —  principles  of  government. 

(Second  form  of  the  notes,  as  expanded  next  day.) 

Notes  of  a  Talk  on  "Patriotism  in  the  Public 
Schools " 
I?it7'oductio7i. 

1.  Meaning  of  patriotism:  love  of  country  that  respects  her  laws, 
upholds  her  principles,  and  maintains  her  honor  at  home  and  abroad. 

2.  Value  in  public  schools :  boys  and  girls  of  this  generation  are 
men  and  women  of  the  next,  with  our-  country's  future  in  their 
hands  ;  —  they  are  now  learning  truths  and  forming  habits  that  will 
govern  later  life ;  —  study  of  history  brings  patriotism  naturally 
before  the  mind  ;  —  loyal  love  of  country  should  be  shown  by  young 
and  old,  in  peace  or  in  war. 

How  shoivn  in  public  schools. 

1.  By  showing  reverence  for  the  Stars  and  Stripes. 

2.  By  learning  carefully  and  singing  enthusiastically  patriotic 
songs. 

3.  By  studying  and  honoring  the  lives  of  great  Americans. 

4.  By  respecting  our  country's  laws. 

5.  By  studying  the  sound  political  and  moral  principles  which 
are  the  foundation  of  our  government. 

Some  pupils  may  find  it  easier  to  make  the  first  notes 
in  the  form  of  brief  sentences  instead  of  "  catch-words." 
If  this  serves  to  recall  more  of  the  address,  and  does  not 
consume  too  much  time,  it  is  entirely  allowable. 


RETELLING   ANOTHER   PERSON'S    THOUGHT        97 

77.    General  directions  for  taking  notes  of  what  one  hears. 

1.  1)6  careful  not  to  become  so  absorbed  in  writing  that 
you  lose  half  of  what  is  being  said. 

2.  (iet  a  clear    idea  of    the  general  meaning  without 
trying  to  remember  exact  words. 

3.  Make  the  first  draft  of  the  notes  during  the  speech 
in  ius  few  words  as  will  give  the  meaning. 

4.  From    the    first    "  catch-words "    taken   during    tlie 
speech,  write  out  later  tlie  expanded  notes. 

5.  T^se   abbreviations   whenever    you   will    be   sure    to 
remember  what  they  mean. 

EXERCISE 

I 
Write  notes  of  these  stories  : 

1.  "  Horatius  at  the   Bridge,"  found   in   Macaulay's  "Lays   of 
Ancient  Rome." 

2.  "  Grandmother's  Story  of  Bunker  Ilill  Battle,"  told  by  Oliver 
Wendell  Holmes. 

3.  Some  selection  recently  studied  in  class. 

From  these  notes  that  you  have    just  made  make  an 
outline. 

SuG(iESTiov.     The  outline  is  usually  a  condensed  form  of 
the  notes.     Show  by  numbers  the  order  of  the  topics. 

II 

Make  notes  of  some  anecdote  or  story  that  you  liave 
recently  heard. 

Ill 

Write    out  the  notes  of  some   address  tliat  you   have 
recently  heard. 


98  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Suggestion.  Indicate  (1)  the  three  or  four  main  points 
that  the  speaker  made  ;  (2)  how  he  illustrated  each  of  these 
points  by  stories  or  proofs ;  (3)  what  conclusion,  if  any,  he 
drew  from  these  points. 

Examination  Papers 

78.  Another  most  important  method  of  condensing  thought  is 
seen  in  examination  papers.  Nowhere  is  there  need  of  more 
careful  writing  than  in  answering  examination  questions. 
Many  students,  throughout  their  whole  school  life,  waste 
valuable  time  and  fail  to  do  themselves  justice  in  their 
examinations,  because  they  have  never  made  a  serious 
effort  to  become  proficient  in  this  special  form  of  com- 
position. It  is  well,  then,  to  take  pains  with  this  form  of 
writing  from  the  time  when  the  pupil  is  first  called  upon 
to  use  it,  in  order  that  he  may  have  nothing  to  unlearn  later. 

79.  General  directions  for  writing  examination  papers.  Ex- 
amination questions  vary  greatly,  and  individual  teachers 
vary  in  their  personal  preferences  as  to  the  form  of  the 
work.  For  this  reason  only  the  most  general  principles 
are  stated  here.  Detailed  directions  will  be  given  by 
each  teacher. 

1.  Think  over  your  facts  before  you  write.  If  you  have 
five  minutes  in  which  to  answer  each  question,  use  two 
minutes  of  the  time  in  thinking.  B^  thinking  is  meant,  in 
this  case,  collecting  your  ideas  on  a  given  point,  throwing 
aside  the  unimportant  ideas,  and  properly  connecting  the 
others.  These  three  steps  in  your  thinking  can  be  taken 
rapidly,  if  the  questions  are  definite  and  you  are  familiar 
with  the  subject. 


RETELLING  ANOTHER  PERSON'S    THOUGHT        01) 

2.  Arrange  your  statements  in  logical  order. 

(1)  Sometimes  the  answer  to  an  examination  ques- 
tion is  best  given  in  the  form  of  a  condensed  state- 
ment. 

QiTKSTiON.  State  briefly  the  character  of  Richard  the 
IJon-IIearted  as  he  is  pictured  in  Scott's  "  Ivanhoe." 

Answer.  Scott  represents  Richard  the  Lion-IIearted 
as  a  somewhat  indifferent  ruler,  a  In-ave  soldier,  a  daring 
adventurer,  a  loyal  friend,  and  a  generous  enemy. 

(2)  If  the  question  requires  for  its  answer  an 
expanded  statement  (see  §§  80-82),  make  a  list  of  the 
main  topics  that  you  are  to  write  about,  and  arrange 
these  topics  in  connected  order. 

Q.     Describe  Bryant's  boyhood. 

A.  In  answering  this  question  you  would  write  on  the 
following  topics,  making  from  each  topic  a  separate  group 
of  sentences,  or  parucjraph  :  (1)  Where  spent.    (2)  Health. 

(3)  Education.     (4)  Amusements. 

3.  Make  your  sentences  brief  and  to  the  point.  Long 
sentences  are  apt  to  get  involved,  and  stringing  words 
together  for  the  sake  of  filling  up  space  results  in  poor 
work  and  seldom  deceives  the  teacher.  Choose  your 
words  so  carefully  that  every  one  counts.  In  the  eff(3rt 
to  secure  brevity  do  not  sacrifice  accuracy  of  thought  or 
expression. 

4.  It  ought  to  be  unnecessary  to  add  that  in  every 
examination  paper  -^  whether  in  English  or  in  any  other 
subject — the  writing,  the  spelling,  the  capitalization,  and 
the  grammar  should  be  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible. 


100  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXEiRCISE 

Answer  these   five  questions,  observing  the   directions 
for  examination  papers  given  in  Section  79  : 

1.  Give  a  brief  sketch  of  Longfellow's  life. 

2.  Name  three  important  poems  written  by  Longfellow,  and  tell 
what  each  of  them  is  about. 

3.  Describe  the  personal  appearance  and  sketch  the  character  of 
one  of  Longfellow's  heroines. 

4.  Give  a   quotation   of  not  less  than   four  lines  from    one   of 
Longfellow's  poems,  and  then  retell  it  closely  in  words  of  your  own. 

5.  Write  from  memory  the  notes  that  you  took  of  some  poem  of 
Longfellow's.     From  these  notes  make  a  short  outline  of  the  poem. 


IV.     EXPANDING    ANOTHER    PERSON'S    THOUGHT 

80.  Retelling  by  expanding  makes  the  story  longer  than  before, 
by  expressing  definitely  and  fully  facts  that  were  originally  left 
untold  or  merely  hinted  at.  In  this  form  of  writing  the 
imagination  is  allowed  free  play ;  but  the  details  supplied 
must  not  be  improbable.  The  following  example  of  expan- 
sion is  quoted  from  a  pupil's  notebook. 

Ex.     The  Colton  High  School  celebrated  May  Day. 

Expanded.  May  Day  fell  on  a  Saturday  this  year.  At  three 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon  nearly  the  whole  school  assembled 
on  the  Campus.  Our  Principal,  Mr.  Brown,  made  an 
opening  speech  in  which  he  told  the  history  of  May  Day  as 
celebrated  in  England.  The  Glee  Club  sang  two  old  Eng- 
lish ballads,  after  which  followed  a  play  written  by  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Senior  Class.  This  play  was  very  interesting, 
and  the  parts  of  Robin  Hood,  Maid  Marian,  and  Friar 
Tuck  were  especially  well  taken.  'At  the  close  of  the  play, 
about  twenty  of  the  best  athletes  of  the  school  engaged 
in  feats  of  strength,  to  the  amusement  of  their  schoolmate.s 


RETELLING   ANOTHER   PERSON'S    THOUGHT      101 

and    friends.     The    last    number    on    the    program   was   a 

May-Day  dance  given  by  sixteen  of  the  girls  of  the  school. 

All  voted  the  celebration  a  great  success. 

^  A.  B.  T. 

81.  Value  of  retelling  by  expanding.  Retelling  by  expand- 
ing is  a  step  toward  original  composition.  The  student 
develops  in  his  own  way  the  ideas  suggested  by  the 
author.  It  is  like  taking  a  pencil  sketch,  which  some  one 
else  has  made,  and  producing  from  it  a  finished  picture, 
using  one's  own  taste  as  to  colors  and  tones,  lights  and 
shades. 

82.  General  directions  for  retelling  by  expanding. 

1.  Read  the  selection  so  carefully  that  you  could,  if 
required,  tell  in  your  own  words  everything  important 
that  tlie  author  has  said. 

2.  Make  an  orderly  list  of  all  the  points  as  told  by  the 
author. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  the  interesting  things  which  are 
omitted;  as,  for  example,  time,  place,  names  of  persons, 
occupations,  historical  events  leading  to  the  incident,  and 
the  consequent  conclusion.  Try  to  supply  whatever  of 
importance  the  original  story  leaves  to  the  imagination 
of  the  reader. 

4.  From  the  two  lists  make  an  outline  from  which  you 
will  write. 

5.  Expand  each  main  topic  into  a  paragraph.  Use  the 
best  words  at  your  command,  carefully  avoiding  the  exact 
forms  of  expression  used  in  the  original  story. 

6.  Read  over  what  you  have  written,  to  see  if  you  have 
told  too  much  about  one  topic,  or  not  enough  about 
another.     Improve  any  paragraphs  that  need  change. 


102  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

7.  He  careful  to  connect  the  paragraphs  in  such  a  way 
that  the  story  will  not  seem  disjointed.  If  the  change 
from  one  topic  to  another  is  too  abrupt,  try  to  connect 
the  parts  more  smoothly.  This  may  often  be  done  by 
using  such  expressions  as  nevertheless^  on  the  other  hand^ 
meanwhile^  however^  m  spite  of  all  this. 

EXERCISE 
I 

Expand  each  of  the  following  short  sentences  into  a 
clear  and  well-constructed  long  sentence : 

1.  Tom  Fifield  won  the  game  by  his  "  home  run." 

2.  Grace  rode  out  to  Bronson  on  her  bicycle  this  afternoon. 

3.  Frank  is  in  the  worksliop  making  a  bookcase  for  his  mother. 

II 
Expand  each  of   the  following  complex  or  compound 
sentences  into  three  related  sentences  : 

1.  Fred  earned  fifty  dollars  while  he  was  in  Florida. 

2.  The  house  is  brilliantly  lighted,  the  rooms  are  decorated, 
and  everything  is  in  readiness  for  the  arrival  of  the  guests. 

3.  It  is  a  familiar  proverb  that  "  A  bird  in  the  hand  is  worth  two 
in  the  bush." 

Suggestion.  State  the  proverb  in  non-figurative  language  ; 
then  tell  how  the  truth  which  it  states  has  been  illustrated 
in  the  experience  of  one  or  more  persons. 

Ill 

Expand  each  of  these  sentences  into  a  paragraph  of 
about  two  hundred  words : 

1.  A  fireman  rescued  a  child  from  a  burning  building. 

2.  A  boy  won  a  prize. 

3.  The  girls  decorated  the  hall  for  the  festival. 


RETELLING   ANOTllKli    PERSON'S    THOUGHT      l08 

IV 

Expand  this  sentence  into  a  story  consisting  of  three 
related  paragraphs: 

Edith  Foss  had  a  Hallowe'en  party  at  her  house  last  night. 
SUMMARY 

83.  In  dealing  with  groups  of  related  sentences,  or 
paragraphs,  great  care  should  be  given  to  the  form  of 
the  work.  Capitalization,  punctuation,  spelling,  grammar, 
margins,  and  indenting,  —  all  need  attention. 

There  are  tliree  ways  of  reproducing  another  person's 
thought :  by  retelling  the  thought  exactly,  by  condensing, 
and  by  expanding.  Retelling  closely  teaches  exactness  of 
thought  and  writing,  helps  us  to  appreciate  the  merits 
of  the  best  authors,  and  enlarges  the  writer's  vocabulary. 
It  is  especially  useful  in  making  translations.  Condens- 
ing helps  the  pupil  to  select  the  essential  ideas  of  an 
author,  to  connect  them  properly,  and  to  express  them 
concisely  and  forcibly.  This  work  is  especially  useful 
iri  taking  notes,  in  making  outlines,  and  in  answering 
examination  questions.  Expanding  allows  the  writer  to 
supply  omitted  details,  and  this  is  a  long  step  towards 
original  composition. 


CHAPTER   IV 
EXPRESSION   OF  THE   PUPIL'S   OWN  THOUGHTS 

Thought  is  the  first  faculty  of  man;  to  express  it  one  of  his  first  desires; 
to  spread  it  his  dearest  privilege.  —  Abbk  Raynal. 

I.     INTRODUCTION 

84.  Telling  one's  own  thoughts.  Practice  in  retelling  another 
person's  thoughts  has  helped  the  pupil  in  the  task  of  telling 
his  own  thoughts.  In  expressing  his  own  ideas  he  will  now 
have  occasion  to  use  the  same  methods  of  expression  that  he 
has  seen  used  by  the  writers  whose  thoughts  he  has  retold. 

85.  The  art  of  writing  well  may  be  learned.  Some  pupils 
find  the  effort  to  write  their  own  thoughts  difficult  at  first 
and  uninteresting.  Perhaps  they  even  say,  "  Some  people 
are  born  to  write,  and  then  they  will  write  ;  other  people, 
like  me,  are  not  born  to  write,  and  then  they  can't  write." 
It  is  true  that  great  authors  are  born,  not  made ;  but  it  is 
equally  true  that  any  one  may  acquire  a  certain  skill  in 
writing.  And  this  skill  is  so  valuable  that  no  pupil  should 
begrudge  the  labor  necessary  to  attain  it. 

86.  Essentials  of  learning  to  write.  The  essentials  of  learn- 
ing to  write  are  these : 

1.  Having  thoughts  to  express. 

2.  Study  of  the  principles  of  effective  expression. 

3.  Practice. 

104 


EXPRESSION  OF  TUE  PUPIL'S  OWN   THOUGHTS    105 

87.  How  to  get  thoughts  to  express.  Some  pupils,  when 
ctskecl  to  write  their  own  thoughts  on  any  subject,  eitlier 
iisk  a  schoolmate  or  friend  what  to  say,  or  copy  from  a 
book.  These  are  uninteresting  and  lazy  ways  of  getting 
ideas.  Books  are  often  helpful  in  showing  the  relation  of 
facts  already  known,  or  in  furnishing  additional  facts,  but 
it  is  not  their  ofHce  to  furnish  the  language  or  all  the  ideas 
for  a  composition. 

How  then  should  the  student  get  his  ideas?  When 
possible,  he  should  use  his  eyes  and  ears  to  observe  the  facts 
for  himself.  He  may  think  that  he  now  sees  everything 
that  there  is  to  be  seen  in  his  range  of  vision  ;  but  perhaps 
he  mistakes  staring  for  seeing.  There  is  danger  of  going 
through  the  world  so  carelessly  that  one  sees  little  except 
what  is  forced  on  one's  sight. 

Next  to  the  sense  of  sight,  the  sense  of  hearing  furnishes 
the  most  facts.  There  is  a  difference  in  the  readiness 
with  which  different  people  hear,  just  as  there  is  a  differ- 
ence in  the  clearness  with  which  they  see.  In  most  cases, 
however,  the  differences  in  acuteness  of  hearing  are  due 
to  differences  in  the  habit  of  attention  to  sounds,  especially 
to  familiar  ones.  One  may  hear  sudden,  loud,  or  unex- 
pected sounds,  but  utterly  fail  to  hear  the  rushing  of  the 
brook  or  the  singing  of  the  birds.  The  test  of  what  is 
really  heard  is  not  what  ''  goes  in  at  one  ear  and  out  at 
the  other,"  but  what  can  be  remembered  of  the  meaning 
of  those  passing  sounds.  What  one  has  really  heard  one 
can  afterwards  tell  or  write  about. 

In  order  to  have  thoughts  to  tell,  the  student  should  also 
think  about  what  he  has  seen  or  heard  until  he  lias  very 
definite  ideas  about  it.     Often  when  he  says  that  he  does 


106  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

not  know  anything  to  write  about  a  certain  subject,  he 
means  that  he  has  not  thought  about  what  he  knows.  It 
is  hard  to  find  something  that  is  wanted  in  a  desk,  when 
the  books  there  are  tumbled  carelessly  about ;  so  it  is  some- 
times hard  to  find  the  ideas  that  are  wanted,  because  they 
have  not  been  sorted  out  from  the  crowd  of  other  ideas 
in  the  mind. 

A  teacher  once  said  to  a  class,  '^  I  want  you  to  think  for 
five  minutes  about  your  favorite  animal.  And  when  you 
have  done  so,  make  a  list  of  the  facts  that  you  know  about 
that  animal."     One  boy's  list  read  like  this : 

Things  I  know  about  my  Favorite  Animal 

1.  My  favorite  animal  is  a  fox  terrier. 

2.  His  name  is  Gyp. 

.3.   He  is  about  twenty-four  inches  long  from  the  tip  of  his  nose 
to  the  tip  of  his  tail. 

4.  He  18  white,  with  black  spots  on  his  tail,  his  side,  and  one  ear. 

5.  I  have  had  Gyp  about  six  months. 

6.  He  was  given  me  by  my  Uncle  John. 

7.  He  likes  me  and  goes  with  me  everywhere  that  he  can. 

8.  Every  morning    he  scratches   at   my  bedroom    door   to   be 
let  in. 

9.  He  will  sit  up  and  bark  for  something  to  eat. 

10.  He  will  play  dead  dog  when  I  say  so. 

11.  I  am  trying  to  teach  him  to  draw  my  sled  by  a  rope  held 
between  his  teeth,  but  he  doesn't  like  to  learn  this  trick.  —  J.  W.  A. 

If  the  student  were  asked  to  do  so,  he  too  could  make 
a  list  of  interesting  things  about  some  dog,  horse,  cat, 
squirrel,  rabbit,  or  canary. 

88.  Some  simple  principles  of  effective  expression.  The  same 
boy    who    Avrote    "  Things    I    know    about   my    Favorite 


EXPRESSION  OF  THE  PUPIVS  OWN   THOUGHTS    107 

Animal,"  in  Section  87,  made  the  following  list  of  facts 
about  writing: 

What  I  know  about  how  t<»  writk 

.1.  I  want  to  tell  something  to  somebody. 

'2.  I  must  make  what  I  say  interesting. 

''\.  I  must  make  my  meaning  clear. 

4.  I  will  use  rather  short  sentences  at  first. 

ij.  T  will  group  all  my  sentences  about  one  toj)ic  in  a  }>aragi-a|>h. 

6.  I  will  stop  when  I  get  through. — J.  W.  A. 

The  student's  knowledge  of  the  piinci})les  of  composi- 
tion learned  while  retelling  anothei-  person's  thought, 
together  with  his  common  sense,  will  enable  him  to  make 
a  similar  list  of  the  facts  that  he  knows  about  writing. 
The  student's  list  should  be  as  definite  and  complete  as 
possible,  so  that,  for  the  present,  it  may  serve  as  a  guide 
to  his  composition  work. 

89.  Practice  in  expressing  thought.  The  next  step  is  to 
write  out  more  fully  the  facts  suggested  in  Section  87 
about  "My  Favorite  Animal,"  remembering  the  sugges- 
tions about  how  to  write  found  in  Section  88.  When 
J.  W.  A.  did  this,  his  first  attempt  read  thus  : 

My  Favoritk   Animal 

My  favorite  animal  is  a  fox  terrier  name  Cjy\).  He  is  al>out 
twenty-four  inches  long  from  tip  of  his  nose  to  tip  of  tail  and  he  is 
white  with  black  spots  on  his  side  liis  tail  and  one  ear  and  1  have 
had  him  about  six  months.  He  was  given  me  by  my  Uncle 
John.  He  likes  me  and  goes  with  me  everywhere  he  can.  Every 
morning  he  scratches  at  my  bedroom  door  to  be  let  in.  He  will  set 
up  and  bark  when  he  wants  something  to  eat.     I  learned  him  to  do 


108  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

this.  When  1  say  to  him  Gyp  be  a  dead  dog  he  will  strech  himself 
out  on  the  floor,  shut  his  eyes  and  lay  perfectly  still  until  I  tell  him 
to  get  up.  This  is  one  of  his  tricks.  I  am  trying  to  teach  him  to 
draw  my  sled  by  a  rope  between  his  teeth  but  he  don't  like  it  much. 

J.  W.  A. 

After  reading  this  exercise,  the  teacher  asked  the  fol- 
lowing questions,  which  each  student  should  answer. 

1.  In  the  first  sentence,  what  is  the  construction  of  the  words 
^'name"  and  "Gyp"?  If  you  cannot  tell  the  construction,  change 
the  sentence  as  much  as  you  think  necessary. 

2.  The  second  sentence  contains  too  much.  Where  should  it  be 
divided  ? 

3.  Where  are  articles  omitted  in  the  second  sentence? 

4.  On  which  side  are  Gyp's  black  spots? 

5.  In  the  sixth  sentence,  why  is  "  set "  wrong  ?  What  verb 
should  be  used? 

G.  What  verb  should  be  used  instead  of  "  learned  "  ? 

7.  What  marks  of  punctuation  are  omitted  before  and  after 
"Gyp"  and  after  "dog"? 

8.  How  should  the  word  between  "  will "  and  "  himself "  be 
spelled  ? 

9.  In  the  eighth  sentence,  why  is  "lay"  wrong?  , Supply  the 
right  word. 

10.  In  the  last  sentence,  why  is  the  expression  "he  don't  like  " 
wrong?     Correct  it. 

When  asked  to  rewrite  the  facts  about  Gyp,  J.  W.  A. 
made  the  corrections  suggested  by  his  teaclier's  questions, 
arranging  the  work  in  the  following  three  paragraphs, 
which  are  based  on  the  topics,  (xyp's  appearance,  his 
habits,  and  his  tricks. 


EXPRESSION  OF  THE  PUPIL'S  OWN  THOUGHTS    109 

My  Favorite  Animal 

My  pet  dog,  a  fox  terrier  named  Gyp,  was  given  me  by  my  Uncle 
John  about  six  months  ago.  He  is  about  twenty-four  inches  long 
from  the  tip  of  his  nose  to  the  end  of  his  tail ;  and  he  is  white,  with 
black  spots  on  his  left  side,  his  tail,  and  one  of  his  ears. 

Gyp  likes  me  and  goes  with  me  everywhere  that  I  will  take  him. 
Every  morning  he  scratches  at  my  bedroom  door  to  be  let  in. 
When  he  gets  in,  he  barks  and  jumps  up  and  down  to  show  his  joy. 
Sometimes  he  tries  to  get  on  to  the  bed.  Then  Mother  insists  that 
he  ought  to  be  punished. 

I  have  taught  Gyp  only  a  few  tricks,  V)ecause  I  have  not  had  him 
very  long.  He  will  sit  up  and  bark  when  he  wants  something  to  eat. 
When  I  say  to  him,  "  Gyp,  be  a  dead  dog,"  he  will  stretch  himself 
out  on  the  floor,  shut  his  eyes,  and  lie  perfectly  still  until  T  tell  him 
to  get  up.  I  am  trying  to  teach  him  to  draw  my  sled  by  a  rope  held 
between  his  teeth,  but  he  does  n't  like  this  very  well.  — J.  VV.  A. 

In  a  similar  way,  the  student  can  use  the  facts  that 
he  knows  about  his  favorite  animal,  and  what  he  knows 
about  writing,  and  prepare  a  paper  on  ''  My  Favorite  Ani- 
mal." If  the  paper  is  longer  than  the  one  just  quoted, 
especial  care  should  be  taken  in  the  choice  of  paragraph 
topics. 

90.  Importance  of  correct  speech.  If  the  pupil  would  write 
and  speak  naturally  and  correctly,  he  must  be  careful  in 
his  conversation.  Since  he  will  probably  all  his  life  talk 
much  more  than  he  will  write,  it  is  important  that  he 
form  the  habit  of  correct  speech,  not  only  in  all  his  oral 
recitations,  but  also  in  his  convereation  at  home  and  on 
the  playground.  It  is  a  mistake  to  think  that  he  can  talk 
in  an  ungrannnatical,  slangy,  or  careless  way  half  the  time 
during  his  school  days  and  then  easily  and  permanently 
assume  correct  speech  when  he  grows  up. 


110  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

91.  Differences  between  speech  and  writing.  Correct  speech 
lays  the  foundation  for  good  writing,  but  people  do  not 
write  exactly  as  they  talk.  Ordinm-y  talk  is  more  informal 
than  writing.  The  easy  naturalness  of  conversation,  the 
sudden  changes  of  subject,  the  effect  of  inflections  and 
pauses  and  of  facial  expression,  —  all  these  make  speech 
different  from  writing.  In  writing,  sentences  cannot  be 
changed  to  correct  or  emphasize  impressions  made  in  pre- 
ceding sentences,  so  that  the  probable  effect  of  each  word 
or  phrase  must  be  carefully  weighed.  This  does  not  in 
the  least  mean  that  writing  must  be  stiff  and  stilted. 

Let  us  compare  an  example  of  speech  with  an  example 
of  writing,  and  note  some  differences. 

Speech.  "Don't  you  think  it's  time  for  father  to  be  here?  I 
heard  the  train  whistle  long  ago.  Hark  !  There 's  the  carriage 
now.     Let's  run  to  meet  him." 

Writing.  Before  the  words  were  well  out  of  his  mouth,  he  was 
whisked  away  somehow,  and  in  his  place  appeared  a  tall  man, 
muffled  up  to  the  eyes,  leaning  on  the  arm  of  another  tall  man,  who 
tried  to  say  something  and  could  n't.  Of  course  there  was  a  general 
stampede ;  and  for  several  minutes  everybody  seemed  to  lose  his 
wits,  for  the  strangest  things  were  done,  and  no  one  said  a  word. 
Mr.  March  became  invisible  in  the  embrace  of  four  pairs  of  loving 
arms ;  Jo  disgraced  herself  by  nearly  fainting  away,  and  had  to  be 
doctored  by  Laurie  in  the  china-closet ;  Mr.  Brooke  kissed  Meg 
entirely  by  mistake,  as  he  somewhat  incoherentl};  explained ;  and 
Amy,  the  dignified,  tumbled  over  a  stool,  and,  never  stopping  to  get 
up,  hugged  and  cried  over  her  father's  boots  in  the  most  touching 
manner.  It  was  not  at  all  romantic,  but  a  hearty  laugh  set  every- 
body straight  again,  —  for  Hannah  was  discovered  behind  the  door, 
sobbing  over  the  fat  turkey,  which  she  had  forgotten  to  put  down 
when  she  rushed  up  from  the  kitchen. 

LoniSA  M.  Alcott's  "Little  Women." 


EXPRESSION  OF  THE  PUPIL'S   OWN  THOUGHTS    111 

Note.  —  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  example  of  speech  is 
more  rapid  than  the  example  of  writing;  it  has  certain  con- 
tractions, ''don't,"  "it's,"  "there's,"  "let's";  the  sentences 
are  shorter;  connecting  words  and  phrases  are  omitted;  in 
short,  it  is  less  formal.  It  is  at  once  felt  that  while  the  first 
example  does  very  well  as  conversation,  it  is  not  effective  as 
dignified  writing. 

IT.     DESCRIPTION   FROM   OBSERVATION 

92.  Description  of  an  object.  One  of  the  first  ways  in 
which  the  student  is  called  upon  to  tell  his  own  thoughts 
is  by  describing  to  others  some  object,  place,  or  person  that 
he  has  seen.  This  may  be  done  in  a  single  sentence,  in 
a  single  paragraph,  or  in  several  paragraphs.  Care  should 
he  taken  to  group  all  the  sentences  on  one  topic  into  a  single 
paragraph  and  to  connect  the  paragraphs  in  such  a  wag  as 
to  show  the  relation  of  the  topics.  The  following  are  types 
of  simple  description. 

Ex.  1,  A  Woodpecker 

Nature  intended  liini  to  get  his  living  by  boring  into  old  trees 
and  stumps  for  the  insects  that  live  on  the  decaying  wood.  For  this 
purpose  slie  gave  him  the  straight,  sharp,  wedge-shaped  bill,  just  cal- 
culated for  cutting  out  chips;  the  very  long  horn-tipped  tongue  for 
thrusting  into  the  holes  he  makes  ;  the  peculiar  arrangement  of  toes, 
two  forward  and  two  back ;  and  the  stiff,  spiny  tail-feathers  for 
supporting  himself  against  the  side  of  a  tree  as  he  works. 

W.  J.  Long. 

Ex.  2.    The  "Burnt  Column"  of  Constantink 

In  the  center  stood  a  magnificent  column,  the  remains  of  which 
is  now  known  as  the  ''burnt  pillar."  It  was  originally  composed  of 
ten  pieces  of  porphyry,  bound  together  ])y  bands  of  copper.     Each 


112  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

block  of  porphyry  was  ten  feet  high  and  eleven  feet  in  diameter, 
and  the  column  thus  composed  was  mounted  on  a  pedestal  of  white 
marble  twenty  feet  high.  On  the  top  of  this  column  was  a  colossal 
bronze  statue  of  Apollo.  The  god,  crowned  with  glittering  rays, 
held  a  globe  in  one  hand  and  a  sceptre  in  the  other. 

Clara  Erskine  Clement's  "Constantinople." 

93.    General  directions  for  describing  an  object. 

1.  Select  an  object  that  is  interesting  and  that  you 
know  something  about. 

2.  Note  carefully  the  point  of  view  from  which  the 
description  is  to  be  made:  that  is,  whether  the  object,  if 
it  be  an  animal,  for  instance,  is  viewed  squarely  from  the 
front  or  from  the  side,  near  at  hand  or  from  a  distance ; 
whether  in  a  description  of  a  room,  for  instance,  the 
observer  is  describing  from  the  outside  or  from  the  center 
of  the  room  or  from  one  corner.  As  the  photographer's 
success  depends  in  a  large  measure  upon  his  choice  of 
a  point  of  view,  so  also  does  the  success  of  one  who  is 
describing.  The  aim  should  be  to  choose  a  point  of 
view  that  will  give  the  most  characteristic  or  striking 
picture  to  the  mind.  Experiment  and  practice  will  help 
the  student  to  choose  wisely.  The  point  of  view  should 
not  be  changed  in  one  description  unless  it  is  done  very 
plainly  and  to  secure  some  special  end. 

3.  From  the  chosen  point  of  view  observe  the  object 
carefully,  noting  the  most  striking  things  about  it,  such 
as  shape,  size,  color,  and  general  features.  You  cannot 
expect  to  give  others  a  clear  and  correct  idea  of  the  object 
described  unless  you  see  it  clearly  in  your  own  mind. 

4.  Arrange  the  details  of  your  description  in  'some  log- 
ical order ;  giving  first,  as  a  rule,  the  general  facts  which 


EXPRESSION  OF  TUE  PUPIVS   OWN  THOUGHTS    113 

strike  the  eye  iit  once,  and  then  adding  special  facts  in  a 
natural  order. 

5.  Select  essential  characteristics,  that  the  o])ject  may 
stand  out  clearly  from  other  objects.     . 

6.  Choose  definite  words,  because  they  add  much  to  the 
vividness  of  the  description.  (Note  the  effect  of  the  spe- 
cial adjectives  used  in  the  first  example  in  Section  92.) 

7.  When  the  whole  description  is  written,  correct  it 
carefully. 

EXERCISE 

Select  from  your  own  recent  reading,  and  bring  to  class, 
three  good  descriptions  of  objects. 

II 
Describe  in  a  single  paragraph  the  Lion  of  Lucerne, 
pictured  on  tlie  next  page. 

Suggestions 

1.  Why  is  this  lion  interesting  for  description  ? 

2.  What  is  to  be  the  point  of  view  ? 

,3.  What  facts  are  essential  to  the  description  besides  the 
position,  color,  size,  and  sliape  of  the  object  ? 

4.  In  wliat  order  sliould  tliese  otlier  details  be  men- 
tioned ?     Why  ? 

0.  Compare  your  finished  description  with  the  engraving. 

Ill 
Describe   in  a  single  paragraph  each  of  the  following 
objects : 

1.  A  Trap  for  Catcliin<4  Ral»hit.s.  3.    A  Sclioolrooin. 

2.  An  Interesting  Puzzle  or  (ianie.  4.    The  Aiiieiican  Flag. 


114 


COMPOSITION  AND  lUIETOHIC 


The  Lion  of  Lucerne 

5.  An  Old-fashioned  Clock.  8.    An  Elephant. 

6.  A  Bird's  Nest.  9.    A  Butterfly. 

7.  A  Balloon.  10.    A  Wild  Flower. 


IV 


Describe    in   three   paragraphs    each    of   tlie    following 
objects : 


1.  A  Sailboat. 

2.  An  Old  Garret. 

3.  A  Country  Store. 

4.  My  Garden. 

5.  A  Grapliophone. 


6.  A  Mechanical  Toy. 

7.  A  Windmill. 

8.  An  Equestrian  Statue. 

9.  A  Fine  Pu))lic  Building. 
10.  A  Sunset. 


94.  Description  of  a  place.  In  the  following  descriptions 
notice  particularly  the  picturesque  adjectives  and  other 
definite  words  which  help  to  make  the  picture  clear. 


EXPRESSION  OF  THE  PUPIL'S   OWN  THOUGHTS    115 

Ex.  1.  Kenilwouth  Castle  and  Grounds 

The  outer  wall  of  this  splendid  and  gigantic  structure  enclosed 
seven  acres,  a  part  of  which  was  occupied  by  extensive  stables,  and 
by  a  pleasure-garden,  with  its  trim  arbors  and  parterres,  and  the  rest 
formed  the  base-court,  or  outer  yard  of  the  noble  castle.  .  .  .  The 
external  wall  of  this  royal  castle  was,  on  the  south  and  west  sides, 
adorned  and  defended  by  a  lake.  .  .  .  Beyond  the  lake  lay  an  exten- 
sive chase,  full  of  red-<leer,  fallow-<leer,  roes,  and  every  s|)ecies  of 
game,  and  al)ounding  with  lofty  trees,  from  amongst  which  the 
extended  front  and  massive  towers  of  the  castle  were  seen  to  rise  in 
majesty  and  beauty.  S^^^^,^  ,,  Kenilworth." 

Ex.  2.  Description  of  Gkand-Prk 

In  the  Acadian  land,  on  the  shores  of  the  Basin  of  Minas, 

Distant,  secluded,  still,  the  little  village  of  Grand-Pr6 

Lay  in  the  fruitful  valley.     Vast  meadows  stretched  to  the  eastward. 

Giving  the  village  its  name,  and  pasture  to  flocks  without  number. 

Dikes,  that  the  hands  of  the  farmers  had  raised  with  labor  incessant, 

Shut  out  the  turbulent  tides;  but  at  stated  seasons  the  flood-gates 

Oj)ened  and  welcomed  the  sea  to  wander  at  will  o'er  the  meadows. 

AVest  and  south  there  were  fields  of  flax,  and  orchards  and  corn-fields 

Spreading  afar  and  unfenced  o'er  the  plain.   .   .  . 

Strongly  built  were  the  houses,  with  frames  of  oak  and  of  hemlock, 

Thatched  were  the  roofs,  with  dormer  windows ;  and  gables  projecting 
Over  the  basement  below  protected  and  shaded  the  doorway. 

Longfellow's  '•Evangeline." 

95.  General  directions  for  describing  a  place. 

1.  Select  a  place  which  you  already  know,  or  which  you 
can  easily  visit  before  you  write  the  description.  The 
place  should  be  one  that  has  genuine  interest  in  itself, 
from  its  beauty,  its  novelty,  or  its  historic  association. 

2.  Decide  carefully  upon  the  point  of  view  to  be  taken. 
You  may,  for  instance,  want  to  give  a  description  from  a 


116  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

high  mountain;  such  a  "bird's-eye"  view  wouhl  give  only 
the  large  and  prominent  features  of  the  landscape.  Or 
you  may  wish  to  describe  a  mountain  spring  from  your 
seat  on  a  mossy  rock  near  by ;  in  this  case  there  will  be 
almost  no  general  features,  but  instead  many  pleasing 
small  details. 

3.  Observe  the  place  carefully  and  arrange  your  obser- 
vations logically. 

4.  Mention  the  absolutely  essential  details  fii'st.  Be 
careful  to  give  enough  to  make  the  place  real  to  one  who 
has  never  seen  it.  Follow  the  advice  of  a  successful 
American  author  and  describe  the  place  as  if  yoii  were  the 
only  person  ivho  knew  about  it.  The  charm  of  such  a  descrip- 
tion consists  largely  in  the  writer's  attention  to  little  things, 
which  are  essential  because  characteristic,  but  the  importance 
of  which  would  escape  the  notice  of  a  careless  ol)server. 

5.  Choose  specific  words  and  expressions  instead  of 
vague  or  general  ones  (see  §§  222-224). 

EXERCISE 
I 

Bring  to  the  class,  from  your  own  recent  reading,  three 
good  descriptions  of  places. 

II 

Descril^e  in  a  smgle  paragraph  the  view  of  the  Avon 
River  at  Stratford,  pictured  on  the  opposite  page,  keeping 
in  mind  the  following  suggestions. 

Suggestions 
1.  Why  is  this  place  interesting  for  description  ? 

r\       -r-rr^        i      •        i         1  il__'j._J? • o 


2.  What  is  to  be  the  point  of  vie^ 


11>^  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

3.  What  is  the  central  object  in  the  landscape  ?     Why  ? 

4.  What  is  to  be  mentioned  in  the  background  of  the 
scene  ?     Why  ? 

5.  What  is  to  be  mentioned  in  the  foreground  ?     Why  ? 

6.  Compare  your  finished  description  with  the  engraving. 

Ill 

Describe  in  a  single  paragraph  one  of  the  following 
places : 

1.  Some  mountain  brook  or  cascade  with  which  you  are  familiar. 

2.  Some  cave,  or  other  interesting  natural  formation  that  you 
know. 

IV 

Describe  in  several  paragraphs  the  following  scenes  : 

1.  An  attractive  view  from  some  window. 

Suggestion.  Make  an  outline  showing  what  you  intend 
to  include  in  your  description  ;  as,  for  example,  (1)  Time  and 
circumstances ;  (2)  Features  of  scenery ;  (3)  Buildings,  or 
other  artificial  objects ;  (4)  Animals  and  human  beings. 

2.  "The  Most  Beautiful  Spot  I  know." 

3.  Some  place  of  Ic^cal  interest  to  be  assigned  by  the  teacher. 

96.  Description  of  a  person.  The  two  great  essentials  for 
success  in  this  work  are  sympathy  and  keen  observation. 
Study  these  descriptions  of  persons  to  see  what  makes 
them  interesting  and  striking. 

Ex.  1.  George  Washington 

George  Washington's  personal  appearance  was  in  harmony  with 
his  character ;  it  was  a  model  of  manly  strength  and  beauty.  He 
was  about  six  feet  two  inches  in  height,  and  his  person  well  propor- 
tioned, —  in  the  earlier  part  of  life  rather  spare,  and  never  too  stout 
for  active  and  graceful  movement.     The  complexion  inclined  to  the 


EXPRESSION  OF  THE  PUPIL'S  OWN   THOUGHTS    119 

Horid  ;  the  eyes  were  ])liie  aii«l  iviiiaikably  far  apart  ;  a  profusion  of 
l»rowii  hair  was  drawn  back  from  the  forehead,  highly  |M)wdered, 
according  to  the  fashion  of  the  day,  and  gatliered  in  a  bag  behind. 
He  was  scrupulously  neat  in  his  dress,  and  while  in  camp,  though 
he  habitually  left  his  tent  at  sunrise,  he  was  usually  dressed  for  the 

''^>''  Edward  Everett's  " The  Life  of  Washington." 

Ex.  2.  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge 

At  first  I  thought  him  very  plain,  that  is,  for  about  three  minutes  : 
he  is  pale,  thin,  has  a  wide  mouth,  thick  lips  and  not  very  good 
teeth,  longish,  loose-growing,  half-curling,  rough  black  hair.  .  .  . 
His  eye  is  large  and  full,  and  not  very  dark,  but  gray.  He  has  fine, 
dark  eyebrows  and  an  overhanging  forehead. 

Dorothy  Wordsworth. 


97.    General  directions  for  describing  a  person. 

1.  Select  a  person  sufficiently  striking  in  appearance  to 
be  interesting. 

2.  Decide  upon  the  point  of  view  from  which  the  descrip- 
tion is  to  be  made ;  whjether,  for  example,  the  person  is  to 
Ixi  viewed  in  profile,  from  a  distance,  or  near  at  hand. 

3.  Select  the  striking  characteristics  of  form,  features, 
dress,  attitude.  Do  not,  however,  exaggerate  peculiarities 
unless  you  intend  to  give  a  caricature. 

4.  Arrange  the  parts  of  the  description  logically  and 
effectively.  Sometimes  it  seems  best  to  give  the  most  strik- 
ing cliaracteristic  first,  and  then  mention  other  details,  as 
you  would  tii*st  observe  that  strange  peculiarity  and  then 
note  other  things.  At  other  times,  it  may  be  better  to 
l)egin  with  general  facts  that  would  appeal  fii-st  to  the 
(observer  and  end  with  some  very  striking  fact  that  grows 
upon  the  observer  with  closer  observation. 


120  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISE 
1 

Bring  to  class  three  good  descriptions  of  persons  found 
in  your  own  reading.  Point  out  the  words  and  expres- 
sions that  are  most  effective. 

II 

Give  in  a  single  sentence  a  description  of  each  of  the 
following  people  : 

1.  A  Cowboy.  3.    The  Park  Policeman. 

2.  An  Organ-Grinder.  4,    A  Local  Character. 

Ill 

Write  a  paragraph  describing  the  face  of  Li  Hung 
Chang,  pictured  on  the  opposite  page. 

Suggestions 

1.  What  makes  this  face  interesting  for  description  ? 

2.  What  view  of  the  face  is  shown  ? 

3.  What  features  are  most  prominent  ?  Which  of  these 
are  attractive  ? 

4.  What  is  the  general  expression  of  the  face  ? 

5.  Compare  your  finished  description  with  the  engraving. 

IV 

Write  several  paragraphs  of  description  about  each  of 
the  following : 

1.  The  Cook. 

2.  Our  Doctor. 

3.  A  Chinese  Laundryman. 

4.  An  Interesting  Friend. 

5.  Some  character  suggested  by  the  teacher. 


EXPRESSION  OF  THE  PUPIL'S   OWN   THOUGHTS     121 


Li  Hung  Chang 


III.     NARRATION   FROM    EXPERIENCE 


98.  What  narration  is.  Much  of  our  written  work  con- 
sists in  telling  stories  of  what  has  happened  in  our  own 
experience.  The  word  "story"  is  a  short  form  of  the  word 
"history"  {laropia),  which  means  "learning  by  inquiry." 
In  simple  narration,  events  are  told  in  the  order  of  time, 
either  in  the  first  pei*son  by  one  of  the  actors,  or  in  the 


122  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

third  person  by  an   interested  observer.     The   following 
are  types  of  excellent  narration. 

Ex.  1.  Anecdote  of  a  Sagacious  Dog 

A  gentleman  in  London  had  a  dog  which  was  a  great  favorite 
on  account  of  his  sagacity  and  amusing  tricks.  At  breakfast  time 
his  master  would  often  give  him  a  penny  with  wliicli  he  would  go 
to  a  neighboring  shop  and  buy  himself  a  bun,  carrying  the  coin 
between  his  teeth.  One  day,  in  the  absence  of  the  master  of  the 
shop,  the  baker's  boy  played  an  ill-natured  trick  on  the  dog.  When 
the  dog  had  deposited  his  penny  as  usual,  the  lad  gave  him  a  hot 
bun  from  the  oven.  In  an  instant  the  sagacious  creature  dropped 
the  bun,  snapped  up  the  penny,  and  ran  oft'  with  it ;  and  he  was 
never  known  to  enter  that  shop  again. 

Ex.  2.     Raleigh's  First  Meeting  with  Queen  Elizabeth 

The  young  cavalier  we  have  so  often  mentioned  had  probably 
never  yet  approached  so  near  the  person  of  his  sovereign,  and  he 
pressed  forward  as  far  as  the  line  of  warders  permitted,  in  order  to 
avail  himself  of  the  present  opportunity.  Unbonneting,  he  fixed 
his  eager  gaze  on  the  Queen's  approach,  with  a  mixture  of  respectful 
curiosity  and  modest  yet  ardent  admiration,  which  suited  so  well 
with  his  fine  features,  that  the  warders,  struck  with  his  rich  attire 
and  noble  countenance,  suffered  him  to  approach  the  ground  over 
which  the  Queen  was  to  pass,  som.ewhat  closer  than  was  permitted 
to  ordinary  spectators.  The  night  had  been  rainy,  and  just  where 
the  young  gentleman  stood  a  little  pool  of  muddy  water  interrupted 
the  Queen's  passage.  As  she  hesitated  to  pass  on,  the  gallant,  throw- 
ing his  cloak  from  his  shoulders,  laid  it  on  the  miry  spot,  so  as  to 
insure  her  stepping  over  it  dryshod.  Elizabeth  looked  at  the  young 
man,  who  accompanied  this  act  of  devoted  courtesy  with  a  profound 
reverence  and  a  blush  that  overspread  his  whole  countenance.  The 
Queen  was  confused,  and  blushed  in  her  turn,  nodded  her  head,  hastily 
passed  on,  and  embarked  in  her  barge  without  saying  a  word. 

Scott's  "  Kenilworth." 


EXPRESSION  OF  TUE  PUPIL'S   OWN   THOUGHTS    123 

F^x.  3.  A   Rabkit  Party 

The  first  arrival  came  in  with  a  rush.  There  was  a  sudden  scurry 
behind  me,  and  over  the  log  he  came  with  a  flying  leap  that  landed 
him  on  the  smooth  bit  of  ground  in  the  middle,  where  he  whirled 
around  and  around  with  grotesque  jumps,  like  a  kitten  after  its  tail. 
Then  he  went  off  helter-skelter  in  a  headlong  rush  through  the  ferns. 
Before  I  knew  what  had  becojne  of  him,  over  the  log  he  came  again 
in  a  marvellous  jump,  and  went  tearing  around  the  clearing  like  a 
circus  horse,  varying  his  performance  now  by  a  high  leap,  now 
by  two  or  three  awkward  hops  on  his  hind  legs,  like  a  dancing 
bear. 

The  third  time  around  he  discovered  me  in  the  midst  of  one  of 
his  antics.  He  was  so  surprised  that  he  fell  down.  In  a  second  lie 
was  up  again,  sitting  up  very  straight  on  his  haunches  just  in  front 
of  me,  paws  crossed,  ears  erect,  eyes  shining  in  fear  and  curiosity. 
"Who  are  you?"  he  was  saying,  as  plainly  as  ever  rabbit  said  it. 
Without  moving  a  muscle  I  tried  to  tell  him,  and  also  that  he  need 
not  be  afraid.  Perhaps  he  began  to  understand,  for  he  turned  his 
head  on  one  side,  just  as  a  dog  does  when  you  talk  to  him.  But  lie 
was  not  quite  satisfied.  "I  '11  try  my  scare  on  him,"  he  thought;  and 
thump!  (hump!  thump!  sounded  his  padded  hind  foot  on  the  soft 
ground.  It  almost  made  me  start  again,  it  sounded  so  big  in  the 
dead  stillness.  This  last  test  quite  convinced  him  that  I  was 
harmless,  and,  after  a  moment's  watching,  away  he  went  in  some 
astonishing  jumps  into  the  forest. 

A  few  minutes  passed  by  in  quiet  waiting  before  he  was  back 
again,  this  time  with  two  or  three  companions.  I  have  no  doubt 
that  he  had  been  watching  me  all  the  time,  for  I  had  heard  his 
challenge  in  the  brush  just  behind  my  log.  The  fun  now  began  to 
grow  lively.  Around  and  around  they  went,  here,  there,  every- 
where,—  the  woods  seemed  full  of  rabbits,  they  scurried  around  so. 
Every  few  minutes  the  number  increased,  as  some  new  arrival  came 
flying  in  and  gyrated  around  like  a  brown  fur  pinwheel.  They 
leaped  over  everything  in  the  clearing ;  they  leaped  over  each  other 
as  if  playing  leap-frog  ;  they  vied  with  each  other  in  the  high  jump. 
Sometimes  they  gathered  together  in  the  middle  of  the  open  space 


124  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

and  crept  about  close  to  the  ground,  in  ^nd  out  and  round  about, 
like  a  game  of  fox  and  geese.  Then  they  rose  on  their  hind  legs 
and  hopped  slowly  about  in  all  the  dignity  of  a  minuet.  Right  in 
the  midst  of  the  solemn  affair  some  mischievous  fellow  gave  a 
squeak  and  a  big  jump  ;  and  away  they  all  went  hurry-skurry  for 
all  the  world  like  a  lot  of  boys  turned  loose  for  recess.  In  a 
minute  they  were  back  again,  quiet  and  sedate,  and  solemn  as 
bullfrogs. 

Once  there  was  a  curious  performance  over  across  the  clearing. 
I  could  not  see  it  very  plainly,  but  it  looked  very  much  like  a  boxing 
match.  A  queer  sound,  put-a-put-a-put-a-put  first  drew  my  attention 
to  it.  Two  rabbits  were  at  the  edge  of  the  ferns,  standing  up  on 
their  hind  legs,  face  to  face,  and  apparently  cuffing  each  other 
soundly,  while  they  hopped  slowly  around  and  around  in  a  circle. 
I  could  not  see  the  blows,  but  only  the  boxing  attitude,  and  hear 
the  sounds  as  they  landed  on  each  other's  ribs.  The  other 
rabbits  did  not  seem  to  mind  it,  as  they  would  have  done  had  it 
been  a  fight,  but  stopped  occasionally  to  watch  the  two,  and  then 
went  on  with  their  fun-making. 

William  J.  Long's  "Ways  of  Wood  Folk." 

99.   General  directions  for  telling  a  story. 

1.  At  first,  practice  telling  short  stories  or  anecdotes. 

2.  Select  only  the  actors  that  are  essential  to  the 
narrative. 

3.  Decide  what  events  are  absolutely  necessary.  Leave 
out  facts  that  do  not  bear  on  this  story,  or  are  far  less 
important  than  the  main  events. 

4.  Arrange  these  events  in  the  order  of  time,  and  for 
the  present  follow  that  order  exactly. 

5.  Begin  where  your  particular  story  begins  and  do  not 
tell  what  happened  long  before  those  events. 

6.  Work  up  to  some  one  main  point  of  interest,  and  stop 
as  soon  as  you  have  made  that  point. 


EXPRJiiiSION  OF  THE  PUPIL'S   OWN  THOUGHTS    125 

7.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  tell  your  story  oralli/  first  to 
some  one  who  does  not  know  it,  and  see  if  you  can  make 
it  intelligible  and  interesting  to  him. 

8.  Work  from  a  simple  outline  when  you  write. 

EXERCISE 

I 
In  the  following  story,  leave  out  whatever  is  superfluous 
and  note  the  gain  in  vividness : 

"  Yes,  your  Honor,  I  '11  tell  you  all  I  know  about  the  accident. 
It  was  last  week  Saturday.  I  know  it  was  Saturday,  because  I 
was  doing  my  Sunday  baking.  I  had  two  loaves  of  bread  and  three 
pies  in  the  oven.  One  loaf  of  bread  rose  higher  on  one  side  than  it 
did  on  the  other,  and  T  said  to  my  husband,  <  See  this  bread  ;  some- 
thing is  going  to  happen.'  And  he  said,  '  Something  usually  does 
happen,  doesn't  it?'     James  is  always  so  cool  about  everything! 

"  Well,  as  T  say,  it  happened  on  a  Saturday.  I  was  taking  the  pie 
out  of  the  oven,  and  I  heard  an  awful  scream  over  toward  the  river. 
1  started  to  run  to  the  window,  and  just  then  the  kitten  —  the  little 
black  one  that  Mary  Ann  Brown  gave  me  —  ran  under  my  feet  and 
I  fell  flat  on  the  floor. 

"  When  I  got  to  the  window,  I  saw  some  one  struggling  in 
the  water,  and  1  rushed  out  to  the  river.  Little  Susie  Brown  was 
ill  the  water,  up  to  her  neck,  and  screaming  like  everything.  An 
ugly-looking  tramp  was  running  away.  He  turned  round  once  and 
shook  his  fist  at  Susie  and  shouted,  '  I  '11  teach  you  to  tell  tales  on 
me,  you  little  rat ! '  Then  I  saw  that  it  was  Tim  Murphy,  who  used 
to  work  for  Susie's  father,  and  who  got  turned  away,  because  he 
smoked  his  j)ipe  on  the  hay  and  set  fire  to  the  barn.  Susie  saw  him 
and  told  her  father. 

"Well,  T  rushed  into  the  river,  and  caught  Susie  just  as  she  was 
going  down  a  second  time.  1  took  her  home,  and  we  worked  over 
her  two  hours  ]>efore  we  lirought  her  to.  We  rul)bed  her,  and  put 
hot-water  bags  to  her  feet  and  hands,  and  poured  stimulants  down 
her  throat.     Oh,  T  hope  you  '11  get  that  Tim  Murj^hy !  " 


126  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

II 

Where  should  this  story  begin  ?     Why  ? 

A  Football  Game 

The  members  of  our  football  team  are  Tom  Gray,  Theodore 
Hodge,  Phil  Thompson,  Ralph  tTennings,  Frank  Bailey,  John  Dolan, 
Matthew  Carpenter,  Cyrus  Brown,  Eugene  Smith,  Michael  Donovan, 
Charles  Dearborn.  They  are  all  strong  fellows  and  loyally  devoted 
to  their  captain,  Tom  Gray. 

The  football  field  is  a  large  campus  behind  the  schoolhouse. 
Opposite  the  schoolhouse  is  a  gradually  rising  knoll,  from  whose 
side  many  of  the  boys  are  in  the  habit  of  watching  the  games. 

The  game  was  to  be  played  at  three  o'clock.  By  quarter  after 
two  the  stand  was  crowded  with  merry  girls,  each  wearing  the  color 
of  one  team  or  the  other.  Much  good-natured  chaffing  took  place 
as  to  the  result  of  the  game. 

At  exactly  three  o'clock  the  rival  teams  came  from  the  Athletic 
Building,  and  ran  down  the  hill  to  the  campus,  amid  the  cheers  of 
their  supporters. 

Ill 

Combine  the  following  groups  of  facts  into  three  stories 
of  a  single  paragraph  each : 

1.  "  Grey  Friars' Bobby  "  —  lived  in  Edinburgh  —  lived  on  his 
master's  grave  for  twelve  years  after  that  master's  death  —  friendly 
restaurant  keeper  gave  him  food  —  couldn't  be  tempted  away  —  is 
now  buried  in  flower-bed  in  front  of  Grey  Friars'  Church  —  has  a 
statue  on  top  of  the  drinking-fountain  in  neighboring  square — foun- 
tain has  a  trough  for  dogs. 

2.  Lord  of  a  castle  on  the  Rhine  —  stingy  and  cruel  —  refused  to 
sell  poor  people  grain  —  stored  it  in  a  great  tower  —  people  nearly 
starved  —  shut  him  up  in  his  tower  —  rats  killed  him. 

3.  Boy  going  through  woods  after  dark  —  heard  some  one  say, 
''Who?  Who?"  —  answered,  "Tommy  Jones!"  —  heard  the  voice 
again,  ^'Who-o-o-?"  —  ran  away  —  frightened  —  did  not  know  it 
was  an  owl. 


EXPRESSION  OF  THE  PUPIL'S  OWN  THOUGHTS    127 

IV 
Write  one  paragraph  about  each  of  the  following  inci- 
dents : 

1.  A  runaway  accident  that  you  have  seen. 

2.  Something  interesting  that  happened  when  you  were  riding 
ill  an  electric  car. 

V 

Write  a  paper  of  several  paragraphs  on  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing subjects,  avoiding  imaginary  experiences  as  much 
as  possible,  and  using  a  simple  outline : 

1.  A  Visit  to  the  Circus. 

2.  A  Hunting  Trip. 

3.  How  I  Kept  House  One  Day. 

4.  How  I  Spent  my  Last  Vacation. 

5.  How  the  Robins  Built  their  Nest. 

« 

6.  My  Experience  with  a  Peddler. 

7.  The  Achievement  of  a  Spider. 

8.  The  Tricks  of  a  Trained  Animal. 

9.  My  Ride  on  an  Engine. 
10.  A  Day  in  a  Lumber  Camp. 

SUMMARY 

100.  One's  own  thought  may  l)e  told  by  means  of  descrip- 
tion from  observation,  or  by  means  of  narration  from 
experience. 

In  description  the  writer  should  select  striking  objects, 
places,  and  persons,  choose  a  wise  point  of  view,  select 
essential  details  and  emphasize  them  by  the  careful  choice 
of  "  picture-making  "  words. 

In  narration  the  writer  should  select  a  subject  that  is 
interesting  to  himself,  and  is  likely  to  be  interesting  to 


128  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

others.  The  order  and  the  importance  of  the  events 
should  be  kept  clearly  before  the  mind.  Preliminary 
and  intervening  events  that  would  hinder  the  rapid 
making  of  the  strong  main  point  should  be  left  out. 
As  soon  as  that  main  point  has  been  made,  the  narrator 
should  stop. 


CHAPTER  V 
LETTER-WRITING 

"  letters  —  those  electric  sparks  that  fly  from  soul  to  soul." 

101.  Value  of  letter- writing.  Although  the  bustle  and 
hurry  ot  nuKlern  life  tend  to  lead  us  from  the  courteous 
and  painstaking  style  of  letter  so  common  in  the  days  of 
our  forefathei-s,  yet  the  art  of  letter-writing  is  by  no 
means  a  lost  one.  A  liurried  Imsiness  man  may  not  be 
able  to  wait  for  the  slower  medium  of  thought  afforded  by 
the  leisurely  letter,  and  a  lazy  person  may  not  be  willing  to 
do  so,  ]jut  its  s[)ecial  value  is  still  apparent  and  will  always 
be  recognized.  A  good  letter  expresses  the  individuality 
of  the  writer  with  much  accuracy  and  vividness,  and  to 
this  fact  it  chiefly  owes  its  charm.  Many  people  write 
their  thoughts  and  feelings  more  easily  and  precisely  than 
they  speak  tliem. 

102.  Kinds  of  letters.  Letters  ysltj  greatly  in  lengj,h, 
subject-matter,  and  general  style.  The  names  often  yided 
to  distinguish  them  are :  friendly  letters,  hiformal  notes, 
business  letters,  and  formal  notes.  For  convenience  these 
names  will  be  used  in  this  chapter;  although  it  is  often 
hard  to  distinguish  so  definitely  a.s  the  names  seem 
to  do. 

129 


130  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

103.  General  form  of  a  letter.  Letters  show  some  differ- 
ences of  form ;  but  in  general  the  essential  parts  of  a  letter 
are  these : 

I.   The  Heading    .     .     .    { g'.  Date 

II,    The  Introduction  .     .    \  ^'   r,  ^   .   .. 

(  2.  Salutation 

III .  The  Body  of  the  Letter 

T^r     rr^i     ^       ,     •  (1-  Complimentarv  Close 

IV.  The  Conclusion      -     -    <  ^    a-     \ 

[  2.  Signature 

V.    I  lie  Superscription     •    -j  .:>    pi 

The  Heading 

The  heading  may  occupy  only  a  single  line  ;  but  if  the 
name  of  the  place  is  given  in  detail,  it  is  better  to  write 
that  on  one  line,  with  the  date  on  the  line  below.  The 
place  for  the  heading  is  about  an  inch  and  a  half  from  the 
top  of  the  page  and  well  towards  the  right-hand  edge. 
In  business  letters  and  in  any  letter  written  to  a  stranger, 
the  writer  should  be  particular  to  give  not  only  the  name 
of  the  city  or  town  from  which  he  writes,  but  also  the  street 
and  number  if  it  is  a  city,  or  the  county  if  it  is  a  village. 
If  desirable,  the  details  may  be  omitted  from  this  part  of 
the  letter,  and  given  at  the  close,  following  the  signature. 

(1 )  Boston,  Mass.,  May  20,  1901. 

(2)  High  School,  New  Haven,  Conn., 

December  21,  1901. 

(3)  734  Broadway,  New  York, 

April  5,  1902. 

(4)  Ridgefield,  Fairfield  Co.,  Conn., 

Nov.  16,  1902. 


LETTER-  WHl  TING  131 


The  Address 


In  a  letter  to  any  pereon  who  is  not  an  intimate  friend, 
there  should  be  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  letter  his 
name  and  address,  followed  by  such  a  salutation  iis  Bear 
Sir,  My  dear  Sir,  etc.  These  particulai-s  make  up  tlie 
introduction.  Tlie  address  should  begin  on  the  line  below 
tlie  date,  and  at  the  left-hand  side  of  the  page,  a})Out  an 
inch  from  the  edge  of  the  paper.  This  inch  margin  at  the 
left  should  be  kept  on  every  page  of  the  letter. 

The  address  may  consist  of  one,  two,  or  three  lines, 
according  to  circumstances.  In  formal  letters  which  are 
not  of  a  strictly  business  character,  the  address  is  often 
placed  at  the  close  of  the  letter,  in  two  lines  written 
below  the  signature  and  at  the  left-hand  side  of  the  page. 
In  familiar  letters  it  is  customary  to  omit  altogether  the 
formal  address. 

The  Salutation 

The  form  of  the  salutation  will,  of  course,  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  writer's  relations  with  his  correspondent.  Dear 
Sir,  the  salutation  commonly  used  in  business  lettei*s,  is 
understood  to  be  an  expression  of  respect  rather  than  of 
affection.  Dear  Madam  is  the  corresponding  form  to  use 
in  addressing  a  lady  who  is  a  stranger.  The  Frencli 
Madame  is  applied  only  to  a  married  woman,  but  it  is 
proper  to  address  a  lady  as  Dear  Madam,  whether  her 
title  is  Mrs.  or  Miss.  In  writing  to  a  business  firm,  your 
salutation  may  be  Dear  Sirs  or  Gentlemen.  In  addressing 
an  association  or  committee  composed  of  women,  the 
proper  salutation  is  Ladies.  In  writing  the  salutation, 
begin  with  a  capital  the  hrst  word  and  the  word  which 


132  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

stands  in  place  of  the  person's  name ;  for  example,  Dear 
Helen,  My  dear  Friend,  My  own  precious  Mother,  My  dear 
Uncle  John.  It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  begin  each 
word  of  the  salutation  with  a  capital  letter,  but  this  is  no 
longer  authorized  by  the  best  usage. 

The  place  for  the  salutation  is  one  of  the  points  concern- 
ing which  letter-writers  may,  to  some  extent,  use  theii" 
own  taste.  If  there  is  no  address,  the  salutation  begins 
at  the  margin  on  the  line  below  the  date.  If  the  address 
is  given,  the  salutation  is  commonly  placed  on  the  line 
below  and  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  point  where  the 
last  line  of  the  address  begins.  Some  writers  invariably 
write  the  salutation  at  the  margin,  and  begin  the  body 
of  the  letter  upon  the  same  line,  using  a  dash  to  break 
the  connection.  It  is  well  to  follow  this  usage  when  the 
address  contains  more  than  two  lines. 

In  punctuation,  also,  usage  varies.  It  will  be  safe,  how- 
ever, to  observe  the  same  distinction  that  is  made  before 
long  and  short  quotations :  in  a  brief  note,  place  a  comma 
after  the  salutation ;  in  a  long  letter,  use  a  colon.  If  the 
body  of  the  letter  begins  upon  the  same  line  with  the 
salutation,  the   comma  or  the  colon  should  be  followed 


a  dash. 

(1) 

My  dear  Friend  : 

My  tlioughts  often,  etc. 

C^) 

Ginn  &  Co.,  Publishers, 

29  Beacon  St., 

Boston,  Mass, 

Dear  Sirs  :  —  Will  you  oblige  me  by,  etc. 

LETTER-WRITING  133 

The  Body  of  the  Letter 

As  is  shown  in  the  preceding  examples,  the  main  part 
of  the  letter  may  begin  either  on  the  same  line  with  the 
salutation  or  on  the  line  below,  under  the  point  where  the 
salutation  ends.  It  is  better  not  to  begin  the  body  of  a 
letter  with  "  I "  when  it  can  easily  be  avoided.  While  it 
is  not  a  violation  of  rule,  and  in  business  letters  is  often 
convenient,  in  leisurely  letters  of  friendship  it  is  in  better 
taste  for  the  writer  not  to  make  himself  so  conspicuous. 
No  apology  for  not  having  written  before  should  be  made 
unless  the  excuse  is  extremely  good:  sudden  sickness, 
accident,  or  unexpected  absence  from  town  may  need  an 
explanation ;  but  the  less  said  about  general  negligence 
the  better.  In  writing  a  letter,  the  directions  about 
margins  and  paragraphs  that  are  given  in  Section  63  hold 
good.  A  letter  should  not  close  too  abruptly,  the  last 
paragraph  being  generally  a  brief  and  natural  prelude  to 
the  conclusion.  On  the  other  hand,  such  hackneyed  and 
senseless  remarks  as  ''  Since  I  can  think  of  no  more  to 
say,  I  will  stop  now "  should  never  be  used. 

The  Complimentary  Close 

The  conclusion  is  made  up  of  two  parts:  the  compli- 
mentary close  and  the  signature.  By  the  complimentary 
close  we  mean  the  concluding  words  of  respect  or  affection; 
as,  Sincerely  yours^  Very  truly  yours^  Respectfully  your%^ 
Your  sincere  friend^  Your  loving  son. 

Tlie  place  for  the  complimentary  close  is  on  the  line 
below    the   concluding  words   in    the   main   part   of   the 


134  COMPOSITION  AND  lUIETORIO 

letter.      Only  the  first  word  sliould  begin  with  a  capital. 
A  comma  should  be  placed  after  the  complimentary  close. 

The  Signattire 

The  place  for  the  signature  is  on  the  line  below  the  com- 
plimentary close.  If  the  letter  is  to  a  stranger,  the  name 
should  be  written  in  full,  and  the  writer  should  be  careful 
to  sign  his  name  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  how  he  is 
to  be  addressed  in  reply.  Business  men,  in  particular, 
would  be  spared  many  embarrassments  and  vexatious 
delays  if  people,  especially  women,  were  more  considerate 
about  signatures.  Suppose  that  a  firm  doing  a  large  busi- 
ness receive  a  letter  of  inquiry  signed  J.  M.  Hall.  If  the 
person  is  unknown  to  them,  they  may  have  to  guess  from 
the  penmanship  whether  the  writer  is  a  man  or  a  woman. 
If  the  latter,  they  cannot  tell  whether  the  title  should 
be  Miss  or  Mrs.  A  careful  letter-writer  would  sign  the 
name  so  that  there  would  be  no  embarrassment.  Notice 
carefully  the  different  forms : 


0) 

James  M.  Hall. 

(2) 

(Miss)  Julia  M.  Hall. 

(3) 

(Mrs.)  Julia  M.  Hall. 

(4) 

Julia  M.  Ha] 

Mrs.  Arthur  E.  Hall,    . 

475  Crown  St. 

The  first  is  understood  to  be  the  signature  of  a  man  ;  the 
second,  that  of  a  girl  or  an  unmarried  woman  ;  the  third,  that 
of  a  widow  who  prefers  to  use  only  her  own  given  name ;  the 
fourth  that  of  a  married  woman  whose  husband  is  living. 


LETTER-WRITING  135 

In  the  last  of  the  following  examples,  the  writer,  who  has 
a  Christian  name  that  may  belong  to  either  a  man  or  a  woman, 
is  thoughtful  enough  to  give  his  address,  so  that  there  can  be 
no  misunderstanding. 

Below  are  given  some  examples  of  conclusions : 

(1)  AVith  kind  regards,  I  remain  ^ 

Sincerely  your  friend, 

Elizabeth  Kellogg. 

(2)  Ever,  my  dear  Longfellow,  faithfully  your  friend, 

Charles  Dickens. 
(:j)     I  am 

Very  respectfully  yours, 

Evelyn  W.  Manchester. 

Mr.  E.  W.  Manchester, 

No.  4  Temple  Place, 

Liverpool,  England. 

The  Superscription 

The  superscription  includes  the  particulars  written  upon 
the  envelope.  In  the  matter  of  arrangement,  custom  varies 
greatly,  and  only  general  suggestions  can  be  given.  It  is 
commonly  arranged  in  three  lines,  but  sometimes  in  four. 
The  name  is  usually  written  on  an  imaginary  line  drawn 
across  the  middle  of  the  envelope,  and  placed  so  that  there 
will  be  al)out  as  much  space  at  the  right  of  the  name  as  at 
the  left.  If  the  address  permits,  arrange  the  successive 
lines  so  that  the  initial  letter  of  each  shall  be  farther  to 
the  right  than  that  of  the  [)receding  line.  Keep  uniform 
spacing  between  the  lines  and  write  plainly.  As  a  matter 
of  convenience  to  post-office  clerks,  it  is  well  to  write  the 


186  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

street  and  number,  or  the  number  of  the  post-office  box, 
in  the  lower  left-hand  corner. 

(1)  Mr.  John  G.  Whittier 

Danvers 
Oak  Knoll  Mass. 

(2)  Miss  Clara  Rogers 

New  London 
Box  296  Conn. 

(3)  Mr.  James  D.  Whitmore 

Frin.  of  High  School 
City 

Miscellaneous  Hints 

Some  miscellaneous  suggestions  are  given  below.  These 
facts  are  usually  well  known,  but  often  forgotten,  by  the 
student. 

1.  In  writing  from  large  cities,  like  New  York,  Boston, 
Chicago,  and  Philadelphia,  it  is  unnecessary  to  insert  the 
name  of  the  state  in  the  heading  of  the  letter,  but  it  should 
never  be  omitted  from  the  superscription. 

2.  In  closing  a  letter  to  a  stranger,  the  writer  may  say 
"I  am"  but  not  "I  remain,"  the  latter  implying  a  slight 
acquaintance,  or  at  least  previous  correspondence. 

3.  Notes,  as  well  as  letters,  should  always  be  dated. 

4.  In  the  address  of  a  letter  to  a  married  woman  her 
husband's  title  should  not  appear.  Therefore,  such  forms  of 
address  as  "  The  Rev.  Mrs.  Bigelow,"  "  Mrs.  Dr.  Edwards," 
and  ''  Mrs.  President  McKinley  "  are  not  in  good  taste. 


LETTER-WRITING  137 

5.  Postal  cards  are  suitable  only  for  brief  business  noti- 
fications. The  salutation  and  the  conclusion  may  be 
omitted. 

6.  It  is  not  courteous  to  seal  a  note  which  is  delivered 
for  you  by  a  friend. 

7.  In  a  short  letter  of  friendship  the  second  page  may 
]:)e  left  blank,  the  first  and  third  pages  being  written  on. 

8.  The  postscript  usually  consists  of  some  additional 
matter  forgotten  in  the  body  of  the  letter,  or  something 
foreign  to  the  subject  of  the  letter.     It  is  better  to  avoid  it. 

9.  Unruled  paper  is  now  generally  used  for  all  forms  of 
letters. 

104.  Characteristics  of  a  good  business  letter.  A  good  busi- 
ness letter  should  be  definite,  stating  its  purpose  clearly 
and  concisely.  Only  the  particulars  which  the  receiver 
of  the  letter  needs  to  know  should  be  given,  and  these 
should  be  arranged  in  the  form  which  will  be  most  con- 
venient for  him.  If  any  questions  have  been  asked,  they 
should  be  answered  definitely,  in  order  that  the  letter  may 
be  in  a  true  sense  a  reply  to  the  one  received. 

Because  a  letter  is  definite  and  perhaps  concise,  it  is  not 
necessary  that  it  should  be  brusque  or  suggestive  of  rude- 
ness :  indeed  it  should  be  uniformly  courteous. 

In  a  business  letter,  the  writer  should  be  particularly 
careful  as  to  arrangement,  punctuation,  spelling,  and 
grammar.  These  matters,  which  seem  in  themselves 
unimportant,  are  usually  interpreted  as  proofs  of  the 
writer's  ignorance  or  culture. 

The  following  example  shows  clearly  that  high  literary 
merit  is  not  at  all  foreign  to  a  purely  business  letter. 


138  COMPOSITION  AND  HHETOHW 


Ex.  Robert  Burns  to  Robert  Graham,  Es 


Sir,  —  When  I  had  the  honor  of  being  introduced  to  you  at 
Athole  House,  I  did  not  so  soon  think  of  asking  a  favor  of  you. 
When  Lear,  in  Shakespeare,  asked  old  Kent  why  he  wished  to  be 
in  his  service,  he  answered :  "  Because  you  have  that  in  your  face 
which  1  would  feign  call  master."  For  some  such  reason,  Sir,  do  T 
now  solicit  your  patronage.  You  know,  I  dare  say,  of  an  applica- 
tion I  lately  made  to  your  board  to  be  admitted  as  an  officer  of 
Excise.  I  have,  according  to  form,  been  examined  by  the  super- 
visor, and  to-day  I  gave  him  his  certificate,  with  a  request  for  an 
order  for  instruction.  In  this  aifair,  if  I  succeed,  I  fear  that  I  shall 
but  too  much  need  a  patronizing  friend.  Propriety  of  conduct  as  a 
man,  and  fidelity  and  attention  as  an  officer,  I  dare  engage  for ;  but 
with  anything  like  business,  except  manual  labor,  I  am  totally 
unacquainted. 

I  had  intended  to  close  my  late  appearance  on  the  stage  of  life  in 
the  character  of  a  country  farmer ;  but  q,fter  discharging  some  filial 
and  paternal  claims,  I  find  I  could  only  fight  for  existence  in  that 
miserable  manner  which  I  have  lived  to  see  throw  a  venerable  parent 
into  the  jaws  of  a  jail ;  whence  death,  the  poor  man's  last  and  often 
best  friend,  rescued  him. 

I  know.  Sir,  that  to  need  your  goodness  is  to  have  a  claim  on  it ; 
may  I,  therefore,  beg  your  patronage  to  forward  me  in  this  affair  till 
I  be  appointed  to  a  division,  where  by  the  help  of  rigid  economy  I 
will  try  to  support  that  independence  which  is  so  dear  to  my  soul  but 
which  has  been  too  often  so  distant  to  my  situation  ? 

RoBKRT  Burns. 

105.  Formal  notes.  Formal  notes  usually  pertain  to  the 
etiquette  of  social  life.  Such  notes  should  be  written  in 
the  third  person.  The  time  and  place  of  writing  are 
written  below  the  body  of  the  note  and  at  the  left-hand 
side.  The  day  of  the  week  is  usually  mentioned,  and  the 
year  omitted. 


LETTKR-WIUTING  139 

Kx.  1.    Mrs.  Chandler  requests  llie  pleasure  of  Miss  Whitney's 
company  on  Wednesday  evening,  at  a  reception  given 
in  honor  of  Professor  Thomas. 
28G  Prospect  Street, 

Monday,  June  the  thirteenth. 

Kx.  2.    Will  Miss  Wayland  be  kind  enough  to  excuse  Harry 
Brown  from  school  at  eleven  o'clock  this  morning, 
and  by  so  doing  greatly  oblige  his  mother, 
167  Michigan  Ave.,  Sarah  L.  Brown. 

Monday  morning. 

Kx.  o.    Mr.  and  Mrs.  Lincoln  regret  that  a  previous  engage- 
ment prevents  their  accepting  Mrs.  Freeman's  kin<l 
invitation  for  Thursday  evening. 
84  University  Place, 

Tuesday,  November  the  fifth. 

EXERCISE 
I 

Write   the    following    business    letters,    making    them 
definite  and  courteous  : 

1.  An  answer  to  an  advertisement  for  a  clerk,  stating  qualifica- 
tions and  experience,  and  giving  references. 

2.  A  letter  to  a  superintendent  of  schools,  applying  for  a  position 
as  teacher.     State  education  and  experience,  and  give  references. 

3.  A  letter  to  some  person  of  influence,  asking  for  a  recommenda- 
tion with  a  view  to  obtaining  a  position. 

4.  A   letter  to  a  ])U8iness  man,  introducing  a  frien<l  who  is  a 
stranger  in  the  city. 

5.  A  letter  renewing  your  8ubscrii)tion  to  The  Youth's  ('ompanlon 
or  Harper'' s  Monthly  Magazine. 

6.  A  letter  to  The  Kllis  Photograph  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.,  ordering 
one  of  the  "  Washington  Portraits  "  for  your, schoolroom. 

7.  A  letter  asking  the  publisher  of  a  daily  newspaj>er  to  discon- 
tinue sending  the  paj^r  to  you. 


140  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

II 
Write  the  following  formal  notes : 

1.  A  note  in  the  name  of  your  mother,  inviting  your  teacher  to 
take  tea  at  your  home.     Name  the  day  and  hour. 

2.  A  note  inviting  an  acquaintance  to  a  social  gathering  at  your 
home. 

3.  A  note  accepting  an  invitation  to  dinner. 

4.  A  note  declining  an  invitation  to  accompany  a  friend  to  a  concert. 

5.  A  note  in  the  name  of  the  class,  inviting  the  principal  of  the 
higli  school  to  attend  a  class  supper. 

106.  Subject-matter  of  the  friendly  letter.  Since  a  good 
letter  will  depend  for  its  thought  and  form  upon  the  per- 
sonality of  the  writer,  no  absolute  statement  can  be  made  as 
to  what  the  letter  should  contain.  Many  people  consider 
it  essential  to  confine  themselves  to  plain  facts,  or,  as  they 
call  it,  the  ''news."  Undoubtedly  one's  correspondent 
desires  to  hear  what  one  is  doing  and  planning  to  do ; 
but  it  is  possible  that  so-called  "  news  "  may  degenerate 
into  trivial  gossip.  Stevenson  says  :  "  I  deny  that  letters 
should  contain  news  (I  mean  mine ;  those  of  other  people 
should).  But  mine  should  contain  appropriate  sentiments 
and  humorous  nonsense,  or  nonsense  without  the  humor." 
This  author's  "  humorous  nonsense  "  was  charming  in  itself, 
and  bravely  concealed,  or  rather  ignored,  the  sad  news  of 
wasting  sickness  and  painful  personal  suffering.  If  the 
writer  has  no  humorous  nonsense  to  express,  he  will  often 
confine  himself  to  interesting  description,  narration,  and 
explanation,  based  on  his  own  observation  and  experience, 
and  interpreted  by  his  own  characteristic  imagination.  Of 
the  many  charming  letters  to  be  found  in  our  literature, 
three  illustrations  are  given. 


LETTER-WRITING  141 

Ex.  1.    The  Rev.  Phillips  Brooks  to  his  brother^ 
Mr.  William  B.  Brooks. 

Arona,  Lago  Maggiork, 

Sunday,  August  12,  1806. 

Dear  William,  —  Last  week  I  wrote  from  the  borders  of  the 
lake  Brienz.  To-day  you  see  I  am  on  an  Italian  lake,  in  a  different 
atmosphere  and  among  a  very  different  people.  The  traveler  over 
these  Swiss  passes  is  dDnstantly  changing  back  and  forth  between 
two  nations  and  climates,  as  different  as  any  to  be  conceived  of.  It 
was  very  striking,  the  other  day,  as  we  came  over  the  St.  Gotthard. 
At  two  o'clock  we  were  in  the  midst  of  snow  fields  and  icy  streams, 
bleak  mountain  tops  and  cold,  bitter  winds ;  then,  as  we  began  to 
descend,  we  came  to  sun,  fruits,  and  flowers,  and  at  five  o'clock  were 
reveling  in  the  softest  air  and  sunniest  sky,  the  roads  were  henmied 
in  by  endless  vineyards,  the  girls  were  offering  peaches  and  apricots 
at  the  diligence  window,  and  soft  Italian  words  h;id  taken  the  place, 
in  the  lazy-looking  people's  mouths,  of  the  harsher  German. 

Since  last  Sunday  I  have  crossed  the  lake  of  Brienz,  passed 
through  the  Brunig  Pass  to  Lucerne,  sailed  over  its  lake,  the  most 
picturesque  in  Switzerland,  climbed  the  Rigi,  and  spent  the  inevitable 
night  there  among  its  swarming  tourists  (the  sunset  was  glorious,  but 
the  sun  rose  nobody  knew  when,  for  the  dense  cloud).  We  then  drove 
to  Andermatt,  where  we  stopped  to  climb  the  Furca  Pass  and  see  the 
great  Glacier  of  the  Rhone,  over  the  St.  Gotthard,  and  down  this  noble 
lake  U)  its  southern  point,  whence  I  write  to  you.  There  is  a  feeble 
band  playing  outside  the  hotel,  a  young  woman  is  walking  across  a 
rope  over  the  street,  and  all  the  ceremonies  of  a  Sunday  circus  are  in 
full  blast,  to  the  great  enjoyment  of  the  population,  priests  and  all. 

We  shall  spend  a  few  days  here  among  the  lakes,  and  then  strike 
northward  again.  Our  plans  will  be  regulated  somewhat  by  the 
possibility,  which  the  very  unsettled  state  of  affairs  allows,  of  our 
visiting  more  or  less  of  the  Tyrol ;  but  we  hope  to  come  out  any  way 
at  Munich,  and  get  a  day  or  two  there  before  I  return  to  Paris  to 
sail.  To-day's  newspaper  brings  the  news  that  the  armistice  is  signed 
at  last  and  peace  must  follow  soon.     Mr.  L.  Napoleon,  it  seems,  is 


142  COMPOSITION  AND  EHETOHIC 

cutting  in  about  those  Rhine  provinces,  and  will  probably  get  what 

he  wants ;  it  is  a  way  he  has.   ... 

I  received  a  letter  from  you  at  Andermatt,  and  a  good  one,  too. 

Is  Fred  still  with  you?     I  hope  soon  to  hear  something  about  his 

plans.     Is  n't  it  strange,  to  think  that  this  is  the  last  letter  you  will 

have  any  chance  to  answer  ?     Good-night,  no  end  of  love  to  all. 

Affectionately, 

Phillips. 

Questions.  (1)  What  objects,  places,  and^people  are  described  here, 
and  how  ?  (2)  What  part  of  the  letter  is  narration,  and  how  is  this 
connected  with  the  description  ?  (3)  Where  does  explanation  occur  ? 
Why  ?  Is  there  much  of  it  ?  Why  ?  (4)  How  is  the  writer's  individ- 
uality shown  in  his  references  to  scenery,  to  the  "Sunday  circus,"  to 
"  Mr.  L.  Napoleon,"  and  to  home  friends  ? 

Ex.  2.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson  to  Miss  Annie  H.  Tde,  daughter  of  the 
American  Land  Commissioner,  to  ivhom  he  had  previously/  ^^  given 
his  birthday  "  because,  having  been  born  on  a  Chiistmas  Day,  she 
regarded  herself  as  defrauded  of  her  natural  rights  to  a  'private 
anniversary. 

Vailima,  Samoa  (Nov.,  1891). 
My  dear  Louisa,  —  Your  picture  of  the  church,  the  photograj)h 
of  yourself  and  your  sister,  and  your  very  witty  and  pleasing  letter, 
came  all  in  a  bundle,  and  made  me  feel  I  had  my  money's  worth  for 
that  birthday.  I  am  now,  I  must  be,  one  of  your  nearest  relatives ; 
exactly  what  we  are  to  each  other,  I  do  not  know,  I  doubt  if  the 
case  has  ever  happened  before  —  your  papa  ought  to  know,  and  I 
don't  believe  he  does  ;  but  I  think  I  ought  to  call  you  in  the  mean- 
while, and  until  we  get  the  advice  of  counsel  learned  in  the  law,  my 
name-daughter.  Well,  I  was  extremely  pleased  to  see  by  the  church 
that  my  name-daughter  could  draw  ;  by  the  letter,  that  she  was  no 
fool ;  and  by  the  photograph,  that  she  was  a  pretty  girl,  which 
hurts  nothing.  See  how  virtues  are  rewarded  !  My  first  idea  of 
adopting  you  was  entirely  charitable;  and  here  I  find  that  I  am 
quite  proud  of  it,  and  of  you,  and  that  I  chose  just  the  kind  of  name- 
daughter  I  wanted.  For  I  can  draw,  too,  or  rather  I  mean  to  say  I 
could  before  I  forgot  how ;  and  I  am  very  far  from  being  a  fool 


LETTER-WRITING  143 

myself,  liowever  much  I  may  look  it ;  and  I  am  as  beautiful  as  the 
day,  or  at  least  I  once  hoped  that  perliaps  I  might  be  going  to  be. 
And  so  1  might.  So  that  you  see  we  are  well  met,  and  peers  on 
these  important  points.  I  am  very  glad  also  that  you  are  older  than 
your  sister.  So  should  I  have  been,  if  I  had  had  one.  So  that  the 
number  of  points  and  virtues  which  you  have  inherited  from  your 
name-father  is  already  quite  surprising. 

You  are  quite  wrong  as  to  the  effect  of  the  birthday  on  your  age. 
From  the  moment  the  deed  was  registered  (as  it  was  in  the  public 
press  with  every  solemnity),  the  13th  of  November  became  your  own 
and  only  birthday,  and  you  ceased  to  have  been  born  on  Christmas 
Day.  Ask  your  father;  I  am  sure  he  will  tell  you  this  is  sound 
law.  You  are  thus  become  a  month  and  twelve  days  younger  than 
you  were,  but  will  go  on  growing  older  for  the  future  in  the  regular 
and  human  manner  from  one  13th  November  to  the  next.  The 
effect  on  me  is  more  doubtful ;  I  may,  as  you  suggest,  live  forever ; 
I  might,  on  the  other  hand,  come  to  pieces  like  the  one-horse  shay  at 
a  moment's  notice  ;  doubtless  the  step  was  risky,  but  I  do  not  the 
least  regret  that  which  enables  me  to  sign  myself  your  fevered  and 
delighted  name-father,  ^^^^^^  Louis  Stevenson. 

Questions.  (1)  Is  there  any  description  in  this  letter?  Why? 
(2)  Is  there  any  narration  ?  Why  ?  (3)  What  explanation  is  made  ? 
Is  it  serious  or  humorous  ?  Effect  ?  (4)  What  is  shown  by  the  letter  as 
to  the  character  and  temperament  of  the  writer  ?  (6)  Infer,  if  you  can, 
the  personality  of  the  one  to  whom  the  letter  is  written. 

Ex.  3.    Mrs.   Ciirlyh  to  Mr.   Carlyle,  in  the.  name  of  Nero, 
a  pet  dog. 

Dear  Master,  —  I  take  the  liberty  to  write  to  you  myself  (my 
mistress  being  out  of  the  way  of  writing  to  you,  she  says)  that  you 
may  know  Columbine  [the  black  cat]  and  1  are  quite  well,  and  play 
about  as  usual .  There  was  no  dinner  yesterday  to  speak  of ;  I  had 
for  my  share  only  a  piece  of  biscuit  that  might  have  been  round  the 
world  ;  and  if  Columbine  got  anything,  I  did  n't  see  it.  I  made  a 
grab  at  one  of  two  small  being.s  on  my  mistress's  plate ;  she  called 


144  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

them  heralds  of  the  morn  ;  but  my  mistress  said,  "  Don't  you  wish 
you  may  get  it  ?  "  and  boxed  my  ears.  I  was  n't  taken  out  to  walk 
on  account  of  its  being  wet.  And  nobody  came  but  a  man  for 
burial  rates,  and  my  mistress  gave  him  a  rowing,  because  she  was  n't 
going  to  be  buried  here  at  all.  Columbine  and  I  don't  care  where 
we  are  buried.  .  .  . 

(^Tuesday  Evening.^ 

My  mistress  brought  me  my  chain  and  said,  "  Come  along  with 

me  while  it  shined,  and  I  could  finish  after."     But  she  kept  me  so 

long  in  the  London  Library,  and  other  places,  that  I  had  to  miss 

the  post.     An  old  gentleman  in  the  omnibus  took  such  notice  of 

me !     He  looked  at  me  a  long  time,  and  then  turned  to  my  mistress 

and  said,  "  Sharp,  is  n't  he  ?  "     And  my  mistress  was  so  good  as  to 

say  "  Oh,  yes !  "     And  then  the  old  gentleman  said  again,  "  I  knew 

it !     Easy  to  see  that !  "     And  he  put  his  hand  in  his  hind  pocket 

and  took  out  a  whole  biscuit,  a  sweet  one,  and  gave  it  to  me  in  bits. 

1  was  quite  sorry  to  part  with  him,  he  was  such  a  good  judge  of 

dogs.  .  .  .     No  more  at  present  from 

Your  obedient  little  Dog, 

Nero. 

Questions.  (1)  What  additional  interest  is  given  to  this  letter  by 
introducing  the  dog  and  the  cat  ?  (2)  What  differences  in  form  and 
language  result  ?  (.3)  What  part  of  the  letter  contains  narration  ?  What 
are  the  events  in  the  narrative  ?  Is  there  any  climax  ?  (4)  How  does 
the  letter  show  the  personality  of  the  writer  ? 

107.    Arrangement  of  the  subject-matter  in  paragraphs.     The 

pupil  has  found  it  convenient  before  this  to  arrange  the 
expression  of  his  thought  in  groups  of  related  sentences 
called  paragraphs.  He  has  found,  also,  that  much  care  is 
needed  in  the  choice  of  paragraph  topics.  When  the 
choice  of  paragi-aph  topics  has  been  carefully  made,  the 
arrangement  of  the  sentences  in  paragraphs  and  the  con- 
nection of  those  paragraphs  is  comparatively  easy.  In  the 
first  illustration  in  Section  106  the  paragraphs  are  arranged 


LETTER-WRITING  145 

on  the  l)asLs  of  these  topics:  (1)  Description  of  changing 
scenery;  (2)  Events  of  the  week  ;  (3)  Plans  for  the  fnture  ; 
(4)  Personal  messages.  It  will  be  well  for  the  student  to 
point  out  the  paragraph  topics  in  the  other  illustrations 
of  this  same  section. 

It  should  be  noticed  that  the  transition  from  paragraph 
to  paragraph  is  made  as  natural  as  possible  by  being  based 
on  the  order  of  events,  or  upon  some  relation  by  which 
one  topic  suggests  another.  It  is  not  safe  to  assume  in 
letter-writing  that  there  is  a  sharp  distinction  between 
paragraphs  of  description,  of  narration,  and  of  explana- 
tion. The  fact  is  seen  to  be  that  these  three  forms  of 
writing  are  often  effectively  combined  in  the  same  para- 
graph. This  does  not  mean  that  the  paragraph  topic 
is  vague,  or  that  the  writer's  thought  jumps  from 
idea  to  idea. 

108.  Essentials  of  the  friendly  letter.  The  chief  charm  of 
a  friendly  letter  lies  in  its  individuality  and  simple  natu- 
ralness. The  one  who  receives  it  should  feel  that  it  is 
written  for  him  alone  and  with  the  intelligent  sympathy 
of  the  writer.  The  simple  frankness  thus  implied  must 
not  be  confounded  with  garrulity,  egotism,  or  indiscretion. 
Directness  and  sincerity  are  perfectly  consistent  with 
dignity  and  even  with  a  certain  amount  of  reserve. 

A  good  letter  is  definite  in  its  purpose  and  in  its  state- 
ments. Exaggeration  and  misleading  digressions  are  out 
of  place  if  the  writer's  intention  is  to  give  an  accurate 
description,  naiTation,  or  explanation.  If  the  writer's  pur- 
pose is  solely  to  amuse  and  excite  to  laughter,  burlesque 
and  nonsense  are  perfectly  admissible.     In  any  case  the 


146  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

purpose  of  the  letter  should  be  apparent  and  should  be 
suitably  carried  out. 

There  should  also  be  suggestiveness  about  the  letter. 
The  writer  should  assume  the  intelligence,  experience,  and 
imagination  of  his  correspondent,  and  leave  something  to 
be  supplied  rather  than  exhaust  everything  himself.  This 
is  more  courteous  and  more  interesting  than  the  encyclo- 
pa3dic  method  of  writing. 

Courtesy  also  requires  care  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
thought  and  the  form  of  the  letter. 

109.  Informal  notes.  Informal  notes  are  brief,  friendly 
letters.  Instead  of  being  written  in  the  third  person  like 
formal  notes,  they  should  be  personal,  simple,  direct,  and 
individual.  They  may  be  on  any  possible  subject  where 
directness  of  friendly  communication  in  its  brief  form  is 
to  be  desired.  Note  the  illustrations  given  below  to  find 
the  confirmation  of  these  statements. 


Ex.  1.    Robert  Louis  Stevenson  to  John  P n,  an  English  boy 

who  had  written  a  letter  of  appreciation  to  Stevenson. 

Vailima,  Samoa,  December  3,  189o. 

Dear  Johnnie,  —  Well,  I  must  say  you  seem  to  be  a  tremendous 
fellow  !  Before  I  was  eight  I  used  to  write  stories  —  or  dictate  them 
at  least  —  and  I  had  produced  an  excellent  history  of  Moses,  for 
which  I  got  £1  from  an  uncle ;  but  I  had  never  gone  the  length  of 
a  play,  so  you  have  beaten  me  fairly  on  my  own  ground.  I  hope 
you  may  continue  to  do  so,  and  thanking  you  heartily  for  your  nice 
letter,  I  shall  beg  you  to  believe  me  yours  truly, 

Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 


LETTER-WRITING  147 

Ex.  2.      To  inh'Ofluce  the  writer's  daughter  to  Mr.  Tennyson. 

January  21,  1872. 
My  dear  Mr.  Tennyson,  —  I  cannot  let  my  daughter  pass 
through  London  without  tasking  your  benevolence  to  give  her  the 
sight  of  your  face.  Her  husband,  Col.  Wni.  H.  Forbes  (himself  a 
good  soldier  in  the  Massachusetts  Volunteers  in  the  War  of  the 
Kebellion),  and  Edith  set  forth  to-morrow  for  England,  France,  and 
Italy,  and  I  of  course  shall  not  think  that  they  see  England  unless 
they  see  you.  I  pray  you  to  gratify  them  and  me  so  far.  You  shall 
not  write  a  line  the  less  and  I  shall  add  this  grace  to  your  genius. 
With  kindest  remembrance  of  my  brief  meeting  with  you. 

Yours  always, 

K.  W.  Emerson. 

Ex.  'i.  Sent  irith  a  copy  of  the  loriter's  works. 

Devonshire  Terrace,  March  10,  1843. 
My  dear  Tennyson,  —  For  the  love  1  bear  you  as  a  man  whose 
writings  enlist  my  wliole  heart  and  nature  in  admiration  of  their 
Truth  and  Beauty,  set  these  books  upon  yom*  shelves  ;  believing 
that  you  have  no  more  earnest  and  sincere  homage  than  mine. 
Faithfully  and  gratefully  your  friend, 

Chakles  Dickens. 

EXERCISE 


Write  a  letter  on  each  of  the  subjects  suggested  below, 
aiming  to  be  as  natural  as  possible : 

1.  Write  to  your  father,  supposing  him  to  be  away  from  home. 
Tell  him  all  the  home  news. 

2.  Write  a  vacation  letter,  describing  the  place  where  you  are 
visiting  and  the  persons  whom  you  meet. 

3.  Write  about  a  visit  to  Concord,  to  the  haunts  of  Hawthorne, 
Emerson,  and  Thoreau,  assuming  that  your  correspondent  is 
unfamiliar  with  the  place. 


148  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

4.  Write  about  a  visit  to  the  White  Mountains  ;  the  Great  Stone 
Face ;  the  Willey  House,  etc. 

5.  Write  a  letter  to  a  little  child,  in  such  language  as  a  child 
would  understand.^ 

6.  Write  to  a  former  teacher,  describing  your  school  life  at'the 
present  time. 

II 

Write  the  following  informal  notes,  remembering  that 
they  should  differ  in  length  from  letters  of  friendship : 

1.  A  note  to  a  relative  or  friend,  returning  thanks  for  a  present 
just  received. 

2.  A  note  to  a  school  friend  who  has  met  with  an  accident  or 
lost  a  friend.     Express  your  sympathy  and  offer  your  help. 

3.  Congratulation  to  a  friend  on  his  having  won  a  prize  at  school. 

4.  A  Christmas  greeting  to  an  absent  friend. 

5.  An  invitation  to  a  friend  in  a  distant  town  to  make  you  a 
visit. 

G.    A  note  announcing  some  good  news. 

7.  A  note  asking  a  school  friend  to  join  you  on  an  excursion. 

8.  A  note  asking  a  person  to  contribute  money  to  some   good 


SUMMARY 

110.    Letters  are  highly  expressive  of  personality. 

The  parts  of  the  letter  are  the  heading,  the  introduction, 
the  body,  the  conclusion,  and  the  superscription. 

The  names  friendly  letters,  informal  notes,  business 
letters,  and  formal  notes  are,  for  convenience,  used  in  dis- 
tinguishing the  many  possible  varieties  of  correspondence. 
Formal  notes  are  brief  and  written  in  the  third  ^lerson; 

iThe  letters  of  "Lewis  Carroll"  furnish  excellent  illustrations  of  such 
writing. 


LE  TTER-  WHI  TING  149 

informal  notes  are  simply  short,  friendly  letters.  Letters 
of  business  should  be  definite,  concise,  courteous,  and 
neat  in  form.  Letters  of  friendship  should  be  natural, 
interesting,  and  attractive  in  form,  and  should  contain, 
as  a  rule,  something  of  description,  narration,  and  explana- 
tion, bearing  on  pei'sonal  experiences  of  the  writer  and 
his  correspondent. 


Part  II 

CHAPTER    VI 
IMAGINATION   IN   DESCRIPTION 

Imagination  bodies  forth  the  forms  of  things  unknown. 

Shakespeare. 

111.  Two  ways  of  describing.  In  the  descriptions  of  objects, 
places,  and  people,  given  in  the  exercises  of  Chapter  IV, 
the  requirement  was  to  tell  the  simple  facts  as  they  were 
observed.  Facts  are  essential  to  all  good  description,  but 
something  else  is  usually  necessary,  and  that  is  the  meaning 
of  the  facts  as  shown  by  the  impression  they  make  on  the 
observer.  In  the  descriptions  written  in  the  letters  required 
by  the  exercises  of  Chapter  V,  the  student  probably  laid 
half-conscious  emphasis  on  the  impressions  made  upon  him 
by  the  people  and  things  which  he  described.  It  is  often 
desirable  to  use  one's  imagination  more  deliberately. 

112.  Imagination.  Imagination  combines  different  ideas 
obtained  from  observation  into  a  new  whole,  never  actually 
seen.  If  the  student  were  asked,  for  instance,  to  describe 
his  ideal  hero,  he  would,  perhaps,  give  him  the  handsome 

features  of  Mr. ;  the  physical  strength  and  vigor  of 

the  football  captain;  and  the  kindness  and  sympathy  of 
his  own  father.  In  other  words,  to  make  one  imaginary 
person,  he  would  put  together  facts  already  observed  about 
several  different  people. 

151 


152  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

113.  General  value  of  imagination.  Some  pupils,  when  asked 
to  use  their  imagination,  say,  ''  Oh,  I  have  n't  any  imagi- 
nation. I  can  tell  you  what  I  see  or  hear,  but  I  can't 
'make  up'  things.  I  'm  practical."  Pupils  who  say  this 
are  doubtless  honest,  but  they  are  mistaken.  Although 
people  differ  greatly  in  imaginative  power,  yet  no  intel- 
ligent being  wholly  lacks  it. 

Nearly  all  games  and  sports  derive  their  charm  from  the 
use  of  imagination.  The  small  boy  who  is  absorbed  in 
leading  his  tin  soldiers  to  battle  receives  pleasure  not  so 
much  from  the  sight  of  his  toys  as  from  his  imagination, 
which  transforms  those  insignificant  objects  into  living 
people,  performing  real  deeds.  The  same  boy,  grown 
older,  speeds  toward  the  goal  with  the  football,  not  because 
the  inflated  piece  of  leather  under  his  arm  is  so  precious 
to  him,  but  because  he  imagines  all  that  it  stands  for 
in  the  way  of  possible  personal  success  and  glory  for  his 
school. 

Imagination  helps  one  to  get  from  reading  or  listening 
"  mental  pictures  "  of  people,  places,  and  events  that  one 
has  never  seen.  Books  would  mean  little  to  the  reader  if 
he  could  not  call  up  a  picture  of  what  is  described  or 
narrated.  Paintings  would  usually  give  little  pleasure  if 
the  beholder  could  not  imagine  the  originals  in  real  life. 

Imagination  helps  one  to  infer  causes  and  effects. 
The  scientist,  who  is  supposed  to  be  the  most  practical  of 
men,  must  use  his  imagination  to  draw  his  conclusions  and 
formulate  his  theories.  He  does  not  consider  imagination 
useless ;  he  is  only  more  careful  than  most  people  to  base 
his  imagination  on  facts,  and  to  make  it  conform  to  neces- 
sity or  probability.     The  business  man  uses  his  imagination 


IMAGINATION  IN  DESCRIPTION  153 

constantly  to  forecast  the  public  tastes  and  demands,  and 
the  rise  or  fall  of  prices. 

114.  Value  of  imagination  in  description.  Imagination  gives 
to  oral  and  written  description  the  vividness  and  force  that 
would  otherwise  often  be  lacking.  It  does  this  in  two 
ways  :  by  supplying  missing  details  which  are  needed  for  a 
complete  "  mental  picture,"  and  by  selecting  and  arranging 
the  details  that  will  produce  a  powerful  general  impression. 

115.  Supplying  missing  details.  One  of  the  firet  ways  in 
which  imagination  is  practically  used  in  composition  is  in 
supplying  details  not  already  given.  Some  practice  in  this 
kind  of  work  was  given  under  "  expanding  another  person's 
thought."  Below  are  given  two  exercises,  assigned  by  a 
teacher  for  practice  in  supplying  details.  The  first  exam- 
ple is  a  single  general  statement;  the  second,  a  series  of 
detached  phrases.  The  descriptions  in  which  the  details 
are  supplied  are  taken  verbatim  from  the  notebooks  of 
second-year  pupils  in  the  high  school. 

Ex.  1.    Tim  was  a  typical  newsboy. 
Tim  the  Newsboy 

Tim  Dolan  was  about  three  feet  tall,  with  red  hair,  a  freckled 
face,  a  pug  nose,  large  mouth  and  ears,  and  small  blue  eyes  that 
could  look  very  angry  if  their  owner  thought  he  was  being  imposed 
on.    His  clothes  were  clean  and  whole,  but  much  patched  and  darned. 

He  had  a  voice  as  shrill  as  a  fish-horn,  and  when  he  shouted  "'Erald, 
Sun,  Globe,  and  Wur-r-ld  —  all  about  the  big  fire !  "  you  could  hear 
him  two  blocks  away. 

He  had  to  help  his  mother,  who  was  a  washerwoman,  support  three 
younger  children,  and  he  had  gained  the  name  of  "  Tim  the  Hustler  " 


164  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

by  the  zeal  with  which  he  worked  from  five  o'clock  in  the  morning 
until  eleven  o'clock  at  night.  He  was  fearless  of  danger,  and  would 
swing  himself  upon  a  swiftly  moving  car  with  one  hand,  and  after 
selling  his  paper  drop  off  again,  under  the  very  nose  of  an  indignant 
cab  horse.  Indeed,  he  was  the  terror  of  policemen  because  he  was 
always  risking  his  life  by.  dodging  in  and  out  of  the  most  dangerous 
places. 

Bad  as  he  undoubtedly  was,  he  never  was  known  to  lie,  or  to  steal 
from  another  newsboy.  More  than  once  he  had  been  known  to  help 
out  a  less  industrious  or  fortunate  comrade  by  the  loan  of  a  few  pen- 
nies, although  this  meant  his  going  supperless  to  bed  himself.  He 
would  only  whistle  all  the  louder  and  joke  all  the  harder  to  drown 
his  hunger. 

Ex.  2.  Small  railway  station  in  country  —  train  just  arrived 
—  people  getting  on  and  off  the  cars  —  old  wagons 
waiting  for  passengers. 

A  Railway  Station  at  Train  Time 

It  was  the  day  before  Christmas,  and  there  was  an  unusual  air  of 

life  about  the  little  station  at  L .      The  train  for  Boston  and 

way-stations  had  just  arrived.  The  engineer  swung  himself  down 
from,  the  cab  to  oil  his  engine,  and  the  conductor  went  into  the  tele- 
graph office  for  his  train  orders. 

Two  or  three  aged  men,  who  were  "  going  up  to  town  "  to  spend 
Christmas  with  their  relatives,  and  had  been  comparing  notes  on 
the  weather  in  one  corner  of  the  barren  waiting-room,  tottered  gaily 
out  on  to  the  platform.  Most  of  the  men  had  been  there  some  time, 
cracking  jokes,  trading  horses,  or  thrashing  their  arms  across  their 
chests  to  keep  themselves  warm.  These  jumped  briskly  aboard  the 
train  and  sought  the  warmth  of  the  smoking-car. 

The  driver  of  the  rickety  hotel  carriage  drew  his  gray  woolen  cap 
tighter  over  his  ears  and  stolidly  waited  for  his  solitary  passenger,  a 
Canadian  drummer.  Deacon  Jones,  who  had  driven  over  to  meet  his 
son  Edward  and  his  wife  and  baby,  drew  up  to  the  platform  as  cau- 
tiously as  if  he  expected  his  twenty-year-old  mare  to  play  the  coltish 
trick  of  running  away. 


IMAGINATION  IN  DESCRIPTION  155 

The  half-dozen  women  and  children  who  had  come  from  the  train 
and  had  been  niuttiing  their  heads  in  hoods  and  veils,  came  from 
the  waiting-room  chattering  shrilly,  and  drove  off  with  their  waiting 
relatives. 

116.    General  directions  for  supplying  details. 

1.  Decide  upon  the  kind  of  details  that  will  be  most 
interesting  and  characteristic ;  as,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of 
Tim  the  Newsboy,  —  features,  voice,  energy,  good-nature. 

2.  Next,  imagine  the  special  details.  These  must  be 
made  definite  by  the  careful  use  of  picturesque  adjectives 
and  comparisons.  In  the  description  of  Tim,  "  red  "  hair, 
"freckled"  face,  voice  "like  a  fish-horn,"  help  to  give  a 
clear  picture. 

Note.  —  This  comparison  of  the  high-pitched  voice  with 
the  shrill  fish-horn  is  a  figure  of  speech  called  a  simile.  An 
expressed  comparison  of  one  object  with  another  which  it  resembles 
in  some  one  striking  particular  is  called  a  simile.  Since  it  will 
often  be  convenient  to  use  similes  in  imaginative  descriptions, 
it  may  now  be  well  to  read  what  is  said  of  this  figure  of  speech 
in  its  fuller  treatment  in  Section  304. 

3.  It  would  be  possible  to  go  on  imagining  details 
indefinitely,  but  this  would  not  of  necessity  add  to  the 
value  of  the  description.  To  economize  time  and  interest, 
the  best  of  many  possible  details  should  be  selected.  In 
describing  Tim,  the  writer  might  have  told  also  about  his 
forehead,  his  hands,  and  his  feet;  but  this  catalogue  of 
details  would  have  been  wearisome.  It  is  no  more  desir- 
able in  imaginary  description  to  give  every  detail  than  it 
is  in  drawing  to  trace  every  separate  leaf  of  a  tree. 

4.  Unless  your  description  is  intended  to  be  a  carica- 
ture, or  a  wild  flight  of  imagination,  select  probable,  or 


166  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

at  least  possible,  details.  Of  course  you  must  not  be  so 
afraid  of  exceeding  the  probable  that  you  will  never  get 
beyond  the  commonplace.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is 
danger  in  letting  the  imagination  run  riot.  The  result 
may  be  not  only  a  poor  description,  but  even  an  unnatural 
mental  condition. 

5.  Whenever  it  is  appropriate,  let  the  imaginary  details 
be  attractive.  The  person  who  has  cultivated  the  habit 
of  imagining  pleasant  details  will  be  likely  to  see  much 
beauty  that  he  would  miss  if  he  had  the  habit  of  dwelling 
on  unpleasant  ideas. 

EXERCISE 

I 
Select  from  your  own  reading  and  bring  to  class  three 
descriptions  that  gain  force  from  the  use  of  simile.     What 
details  are  emphasized  in  this  way  ? 

II 
Write  a  brief  description  from  these  suggestions  : 
ItaHan  fruit-vender — pushing  handcart  — speaking  broken  English. 

Ill 

Write  a  description  from  the  following  outline : 

Note.  —  You  will  see  that  the  outline  has  not  only  four 
main  topics,  but  also^  few  sub-topics  to  indicate  the  kind  of 
details  which  you  are  expected  to  supply. 

An  Old  House 
I.     Location. 

1.  Tarker,  N".  H. 

2.  Hill,  above  village. 


IMAGINATION  IN  DESCRIPTION 


167 


CkOMWELL    liESOLVING    TO    REFUSE    THE    CrOWN 


168  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

II.     Surroundings. 

1.  Lawn  in  front. 

2.  Barn  and  pastures  behind. 

3.  Apple  orchard  on  one  side. 

4.  Vegetable  and  flower  gardens  on  the  other  side. 

III.  External  Appearance. 

1.  Two  and  a  half  stories  high. 

2.  Square  colonial  house. 

3.  One  L  on  each  side. 

4.  Weather-beaten  and  old. 

IV.  Some  Interesting  Rooms. 

1.  Kitchen. 

2.  Parlor. 

3.  Attic, 

IV  ^ 

Describe  in  two  or  more  paragraphs  Oliver  Cromwell, 
pictured  on  the  preceding  page.  Infer  his  character,  if 
possible,  from  his  attitude,  his  dress,  and  his  expression. 


Describe  these  characters  found  in  literature,  avoiding 
the  language  of  the  book,  and  supplying  any  interesting 
details : 

1.  The  Barefoot  Boy.     (Whittier's  "  The  Barefoot  Boy.") 

2.  John  Alden.  (Longfellow's  "  The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish.") 

3.  Aladdin.     ("  The  Arabian  Nights.") 

4.  Hawkeye.     (Cooper's  "  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans.") 

5.  Some  character  just  studied  in  your  literature  class. 

VI 

Write  descriptions  of  the  following  subjects,  and  bring 
in  with  each  description  an  outline  subdivided  in  the 
manner  of  Exercise  III: 


IMAGINATION  IN  DESCRIPTION  159 

1.  A  Store  Window  at  Christmas  Time. 

2.  A  Railway  Passenger  Car. 

3.  The  Ragman. 

4.  An  Indian  Chief. 

5.  Some  Local  Character. 

117.  Describing  for  impressions.  It  is  also  valuable  prac- 
tice to  write  short  descriptions,  the  primary  object  of 
which  is  not  to  record  actual  observations,  but  to  empha- 
size the  impressions  the  persons  or  things  make  on  the 
beholder.  Study  carefully  the  following  descriptions  to 
see  what  words  and  expressions  are  used  to  produce  the 
required  impressions. 

Ex.  1.  To  give  the  impression  of  good  cheer. 

There  he  stood  working  at  his  anvil,  his  face  radiant  with  exer- 
cise and  gladness,  his  sleeves  turned  up,  his  wig  pushed  off  his  shin- 
ing forehead  —  the  easiest,  freest,  happiest  man  in  all  the  world. 

Dickens'   "The  Cheerful  Locksmith." 

Ex.  2.     To  give  the  impression  o/the  gladness  of  springtime. 
We  may  shut  our  eyes,  but  we  cannot  help  knowing 
That  skies  are  clear  and  grass  is  growing ; 
The  breeze  comes  whispering  in  our  ear. 
That  dandelions  are  blossoming  near. 
That  maize  has  sprouted,  that  streams  are  flowing. 
That  the  river  is  bluer  than  the  sky. 
That  the  robin  is  plastering  his  house  hard  by; 
And  if  the  breeze  kept  the  good  news  back. 
For  other  couriers  we  should  not  lack; 
We  could  guess  it  all  by  yon  heifer's  lowing. 
And  hark !   how  clear  bold  chanticleer. 
Warmed  with  the  new  wine  of  the  year. 
Tells  all  in  his  lusty  crowing! 
Lowell's  Prelude  to  Part  I  of  "The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal." 


160  COMPOSITION  AND  BEE  TORI  C 

Ex.  3.     To  give  the  impression  of  sublimity  and  awe. 

By  and  by  the  moon  came  up.  And  as  the  three  tall  white  figures 
sped,  with  soundless  tread,  through  the  opalescent  light,  they  appeared 
like  spectres,  flying  from  hateful  shadows.  Suddenly  in  the  air  before 
them,  not  farther  up  than  a  low  hilltop,  flared  a  lambent  flame.  As 
they  looked  at  it,  the  apparition  contracted  into  a  focus  of  dazzling 
lustre.  Their  hearts  beat  fast ;  their  souls  thrilled ;  and  they  shouted 
as  with  one  voice,  "  The  star !  the  star  !  " 

Lew  Wallace's  "Ben-Hur." 

Ex.  4.  To  give  the  impression  of  silent  grief. 

Chingachgook  was  a  solitary  exception  to  the  interest  manifested 
by  the  native  part  of  the  audience.  His  look  never  changed  through- 
out the  whole  of  the  scene,  nor  did  a  muscle  move  in  his  rigid 
countenance,  even  at  the  wildest  or  the  most  pathetic  parts  of  the 
lamentation.  The  cold  and  senseless  remains  of  his  son  were  all  to 
him,  and  every  other  sense  but  that  of  sight  seemed  frozen,  in  order 
that  his  eyes  might  take  their  final  gaze  at  those  lineaments  he  had 
so  long  loved  and  which  were  now  about  to  be  closed  forever  from 
h^s  vi^w.  Cooper's  ''The  Last  of  the  Mohicans." 

Ex.  5.    To  give  the  impression  of  mystery  and  horror. 

The  judge  has  not  shifted  his  position  for  a  long  while  now.  He 
has  not  stirred  hand  or  foot,  nor  withdrawn  his  eyes  so  much  as  a 
hair's  breadth  from  their  fixed  gaze  toward  the  corner  of  the  room, 
since  the  footsteps  of  Hepzibah  and  Clifford  creaked  along  the  pas- 
sage, and  the  outer  door  was  closed  cautiously  behind  their  exit. 
He  holds  his  watch  in  his  left  hand,  but  clutched  in  such  a  manner 
that  you  cannot  see  the  dial-plate.  How  profound  a  fit  of  medi- 
tation !  Or,  supposing  him  asleep,  how  infantile  a  quietude  of 
conscience,  and  what  wholesome  order  in  the  gastric  region,  are 
betokened  by  slumber  so  entirely  undisturbed  with  starts,  cramp, 
twitches,  muttered  dream-talk,  trumpet  blasts  through  the  nasal 
organ,  or  any  the  slightest  irregularity  of  breath  !  You  must  hold 
your  own  breath,  to  satisfy  yourself  whether  he  breathes  at  all.  It 
is  quite  inaudible.     You  hear  the  ticking  of  the  watch  ;  his  breath 


IMAGINATION  IN  DESCRIPTION  161 

you  do  not  hear.  A  most  refreshing  slumber  doubtless !  And  yet 
the  judge  cannot  be  asleep,  liis  eyes  are  open.  A  veteran  politi- 
cian, such  as  he,  would  never  fall  asleep  with  wide  open  eyes,  lest 
some  enemy  or  mischief-maker,  taking  him  thus  at  unawares,  should 
peep  through  these  windows  into  his  consciousness,  and  make  strange 
discoveries  among  the  reminiscences,  projects,  hopes,  apprehensions, 
weaknesses,  and  strong  points,  which  he  has  heretofore  shared  with 
nobody.  A  cautious  man  is  proverbially  said  to  sleep  with  one  eye 
open.  That  may  be  wisdom.  But  not  with  both  ;  for  this  were 
heedlessness!     No,  no  I  Judge  Pyncheon  cannot  be  asleep. 

Hawthorne's  "The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables." 

Ex.  6.    To  give  the  impression  of  sly  mischievousness. 

But  when  they  [the  robins]  come  after  cherries  to  the  tree  near 
my  window  they  muffle  their  voices,  and  their  faint  pip,  pip,  pop  ! 
sounds  far  away  at  the  bottom  of  the  garden,  where  they  know  I 
shall  not  suspect  them  of  robbing  the  great  black-walnut  of  its  bitter- 
rinded  store.  They  are  feathered  Pecksniffs,  to  be  sure,  but  then 
how  brightly  their  breasts,  that  look  rather  shabby  in  the  sunlight, 
shine  in  a  rainy  day  against  the  dark  green  of  the  fringe-tree.  After 
they  have  pinched  and  shaken  all  the  life  out  of  an  earthworm,  as 
Italian  cooks  pound  all  the  spirit  out  of  the  steak,  and  then  gulped 
him,  they  stand  up  in  honest  self-confidence,  expand  their  red  waist- 
coats with  the  virtuous  air  of  a  lobby  member,  and  outface  you  with 
an  eye  that  calmly  challenges  inquiry.  "  Do  /  look  like  a  bird  that 
knows  the  flavor  of  raw  vermin  ?  I  throw  myself  upon  a  jury  of  my 
peers.  Ask  any  robin  if  he  ever  ate  anything  less  ascetic  than  the 
frugal  berry  of  the  juniper,  and  he  will  answer  that  his  vow  forbids 
him."  Can  such  an  open  bosom  cover  such  depravity  ?  Alas,  yes  1 
I  have  no  doubt  his  breast  was  redder  at  that  very  moment  with  the 
blood  of  my  raspberries.      Lowell's  "My  Garden  Acquaintance." 

Ex.  7.  To  give  the  impression  of  the  ridiculous. 

Ichabod  [Crane]  was  a  suitable  figure  for  such  a  steed.  He  rode 
with  short  stirrups,  which  brought  his  knees  nearly  up  to  the  pom- 
mel of  his  saddle  ;  his  sharp  elbows  stuck  out  like  grasshoppers' ;  he 


162  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

carried  his  whip  perpendicularly  in  his  hand,  like  a  sceptre,  and,  as 
his  horse  jogged  on,  the  motion  of  his  arms  was  not  unlike  the  flap- 
ping of  a  pair  of  wings.  A  small  wool  hat  rested  on  the  top  of  his 
nose,  for  so  his  scanty  strip  of  forehead  might  be  called ;  and  the 
skirts  of  his  black  coat  fluttered  out  almost  to  the  horse's  tail. 

Irving's  "The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow." 

118.    General  directions  for  suggesting  impressions. 

1.  Decide  carefully  upon  the  impression  which  you 
desire  to  make. 

2.  Decide  what  location,  attitude,  and  other  circum- 
stances connected  with  the  object,  place,  or  person  are  best 
adapted  for  the  impression  desired. 

3.  Select  a  few  characteristics  which  will  suggest  the 
impression;  avoid  other  details. 

4.  Let  the  words  be  definite  and  suggestive,  but  not 
too  concrete. 

EXERCISE 
I 

Tell  what  impression  each  of  the  following  descriptions 
is  intended  to  convey,  make  more  definite  the  italicized 
words  and  expressions,  and  add  any  details  that  will  give 
force : 

1.  Just  above  the  Falls  the  channel  narrows,  and  declines  sixty  feet 
in  a  mile.  On  the  Canadian  side,  the  water  is  thrown  out  to  fifty 
feet  from  the  base  of  the  cliff,  leaving  a  passage  beneath.  The  Jinest 
view  of  the  whole  cataract  is  from  Table  Rock  on  the  Canadian  side. 
There  you  get  a  sense  of  power  and  a  sense  of  danger. 

2.  It  was  a  merry  little  brook.  It  had  its  source  far  up  among 
the  hills.  Though  small  at  first,  it  went  persistently  in  and  out  among 
the  stones,  until  it  reached  the  surface  in  a  clear  spot,  and  broadened 
out,  and  fell  down  several  feet,  making  considerable  noise  in  its  passage 
over  the  stones. 


IMAGINATION  IN  DESCRIPTION 


163 


Laocdon 
(Vaticau  Museum,  Rome) 


164  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

II 

Bring  to  class  from  your  reading  five  descriptions  which 
strongly  convey  different  impressions,  and  be  prepared  to 
state  what  impressions  are  produced  and  how. 

Ill 

Describe  the  Laocoon  group,  pictured  on  the  preced- 
ing page,  so  as  to  give  an  impression  of  physical  and 
mental  anguish. 

IV 

Write  imaginary  descriptions  of  scenes  in  nature,  aiming 
to  give  the  following  impressions : 

1.  Beauty.  3.    Barrenness. 

2.  Grandeur.  4.    Luxuriance. 


Describe  real  or  imaginary  characters  so  as  to  produce 
these  impressions : 

1.  Cowardice.  5.  Honesty  under  temptation. 

2.  Avarice.  6.  Latent  power. 

3.  Political  treachery.  7.  Unselfishness. 

4.  Moral  bravery.  8.  Sorrow. 

SUMMARY 

119.  Objects,  places,  and  persons  may  be  described  not 
merely  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  recorder,  but  also 
from  that  of  the  literary  artist  who  uses  facts  or  possibili- 
ties to  interest  the  reader  and  make  a  certain  impression 
upon  his  mind. 

Imagination  helps  one  to  get  from  reading  or  listening 
"  mental  pictures  "  of  people,  places,  and  events  that  have 


IMAGINATION  IN  DESCRIPTION  165 

never  been  seen.     It  helps  one  to  infer  causes  and  results 
in  such  a  way  as  to  make  a  consistent  working  theory. 

The  special  value  of  imagination  in  description  is  that 
it  gives  vividness  and  force  by  supplying  what  is  neces- 
sary for  an  impressive  "mental  picture.'-  These  details 
should  be  interesting,  characteristic,  definite,  and  usually 
probable  and  pleasing. 


CHAPTER   VTT 
IMAGINATION  IN   NARRATION 

He  Cometh  to  you  with  a  tale  which  holdeth  children  from  play,  and  old 
men  from  the  chimney-corner.  —  Sir  Philip  Sidney. 

120.  Value  of  imagination  in  narration.  The  general  value 
of  imagination  in  everyday  life  and  the  special  value  in 
description  were  shown  in  Chapter  VI.  The  special  value 
of  imagination  in  narration  is  equally  important. 

1.  Imagination  helps  to  supply  the  motives  that  are 
the  underlying  causes  of  action.  It  is  out  of  place 
on  the  witness  stand,  where  a  man  is  supposed  to  state 
only  what  he  saw  or  heard,  or  in  any  report  that  is 
intended  to  be  a  mere  statement  of  facts.  But  in  the 
hands  of  a  wise  and  sympathetic  person  imagination  may 
be  relied  upon  to  supply  the  motives  that  are  absolutely 
necessary  to  make  a  story  intelligible.  Writers  of  histo- 
ries and  of  historical  novels  constantly  use  their  imagi- 
nation in  this  way. 

2.  Imagination  furnishes  the  details  which  aid  in  giv- 
ing to  a  simple  event  vital  human  interest.  This  use 
of  imagination  is  often  carried  to  an  extreme  by  over- 
zealous  or  sensational  "  telegraph  editors,"  who  make  of  a 
single  phrase  like  "  small  British  victory  in  South  Africa  " 
two  or  three  columns,  by  giving  a  detailed  account  of 
events  that  never  happened,  and  very  likely  never  could 
have  happened.    If  the  story  reads  well,  it  may  be  popular 

166 


IMAGINATION   IN  NARRATION  167 

with  tlie  luitliinking  porti(Ui  of  the  reading  public  ;  hut 
the  student  should  always  follow  a  more  simple  and 
probable  model. 

3.  Imagination  creates  a  story  that  is  fascinating 
because,  while  it  is  not  impossible  under  the  given  con- 
ditions, it  is  more  ideal  than  a  literal  record  of  actual 
trivial  occurrences.  When  Eugene  Field  was  reporting 
for  a  Chicago  paper,  he  was  described  as  "the  man  who 
was  more  hampered  by  facts  than  any  other  man  on  the 
staff."  It  can  be  easily  undei-stood  that  a  man  with  Mr. 
Field's  lively  and  original  imagination  would  object  to 
spoiling  a  good  story  by  telling  what  actually  happened 
instead  of  what  he  thought  ought  to  have  happened.  So 
long  as  the  stoiy  is  not  misleading  or  too  absurd,  there  is 
small  danger  in  giving  the  imagination  free  play. 

121.  Use  of  imagination  in  narration.  A  great  variety  of 
highly  imaginative  writing  may  be  found  in  our  literature. 
The  books  of  Scott,  Stevenson,  and  many  other  romantic 
novelists  come  at  once  to  mind.  Imagination  is  also  appro- 
priately used  in  giving  reality  to  historical  or  literary  char- 
acter. The  individuality  of  Julius  Caesar  as  portrayed  in 
the  drama  of  that  name  is  made  so  clear  by  Shakespeare 
that  it  has  almost  taken  the  place  of  the  real  historical 
chai-acter.  Such  a  book  as  "  The  Girll^od  of  Shakespeare's 
Heroines,"  by  Mrs.  Clarke,  is  consistent  with  the  charming 
creations  of  the  poet — Portia,  Rosalind,  and  Beatrice  — 
and  definitely  aids  in  the  interpretation  of  them. 

122.  Interesting  examples  of  the  use  of  imagination  in  narration. 
It  is  impossible  to  give  here  more  than  a  few  comparatively 
brief  illustrations  of  the  use  of  imagination  in  narration. 


168  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Ex.  1.       Jim's  Adventure  with  Israel  Hands 

Even  then  I  was  still  so  much  interested,  waiting  for  the  ship  to 
touch,  that  I  had  quite  forgot  the  peril  that  hung  over  my  head,  and 
stood  craning  over  the  starboard  bulwarks  and  watching  the  ripples 
spreading  wide  before  the  bows.  I  might  have  fallen  without  a 
struggle  for  my  life,  had  not  a  sudden  disquietude  seized  upon  me  and 
made  me  turn  my  head.  Perhaps  I  had  heard  a  creak  or  seen  his 
shadow  moving  with  the  tail  of  my  eye  ;  perhaps  it  was  an  instinct 
like  a  cat's  ;  but,  sure  enough,  when  I  looked  round,  there  was  Hands 
already  halfway  toward  me,  with  the  dirk  in  his  right  hand. 

We  must  both  have  cried  aloud  when  our  eyes  met,  but  while  mine 
was  the  shrill  cry  of  terror,  his  was  a  roar  of  fury  like  a  charging 
bull's.  At  the  same  instant  he  threw  himself  forward  and  I  leaped 
sideways  toward  the  bows.  As  I  did  so  I  left  hold  of  the  tiller,  which 
sprung  sharp  to  leeward  ;  and  I  think  this  saved  my  life,  for  it  struck 
Hands  across  the  chest,  and  stopped  him,  for  the  moment,  dead. 

Before  he  could  recover,  I  was  safe  out  of  the  corner  where  he 
had  me  trapped,  with  all  the  deck  to  dodge  about.  Just  forward  of 
the  mainmast  I  stopped,  drew  a  pistol  from  my  pocket,  took  a  cool 
aim,  though  he  had  already  turned  and  was  once  more  coming 
directly  after  me,  and  drew  the  trigger.  The  hammer  fell,  but  there 
followed  neither  flash  nor  sound  ;  the  priming  was  useless  with  sea- 
water.  I  cursed  myself  for  my  neglect.  Why  had  not  I,  long  before, 
reprimed  and  reloaded  my  only  weapon  ?  Then  I  should  not  have 
been  as  now,  a  mere  fleeing  sheep  before  this  butcher. 

Wounded  as  he  was,  it  was  wonderful  how  fast  he  could  move, 
his  grizzled  hair  tumbling  over  his  face,  and  his  face  itself  as  red  as 
a  red  ensign  with  his  haste  and  fury.  I  had  no  time  to  try  my 
other  pistol,  nor,  indeeoTmuch  inclination,  for  I  was  sure  it  would 
be  useless.  One  thing  I  saw  plainly:  I  must  not  simply  retreat 
before  him,  or  he  would  speedily  hold  me  boxed  into  the  bows,  as 
a  moment  since  he  had  so  nearly  boxed  me  in  the  stern.  ...  I 
placed  my  palms  against  the  mainmast,  which  was  of  a  goodish 
bigness,  and  waited,  every  nerve  upon  the  stretch. 

Seeing  that  I  meant  to  dodge  he  also  paused,  and  a  moment  or 
two  passed  in  feints  on  his  part  and  corresponding  movements  upon 


IMAGINATION  IN  NARRATION  169 

mine.  It  was  such  a  game  as  I  had  often  played  at  home  about  the 
rocks  of  Black  Hill  Cove  ;  but  never  before,  you  may  be  sure,  with 
such  a  wildly  beating  heart  as  now.  Still,  as  I  say,  it  was  a  boy's 
game,  and  I  thought  I  could  hold  my  own  at  it  against  an  elderly 
seaman  with  a  wounded  thigh.  Indeed,  my  courage  had  begun  to 
rise  so  high  that  I  allowed  myself  a  few  darting  thoughts  on  what 
would  be  the  end  of  the  affair ;  and  while  I  saw  certainly  that  I 
could  spin  it  out  for  long,  I  saw  no  hope  of  any  ultimate  escape. 

AVell,  while  things  stood  thus,  suddenly  the  "  Hispaniola  "  struck, 
staggered,  ground  for  an  instant  in  the  sand,  and  then,  swift  as  a 
blow,  canted  over  to  the  port  side,  till  the  deck  stood  at  an  angle  of 
forty-five  degrees,  and  about  a  puncheon  of  water  splashed  into  the 
scupper  holes,  and  lay  in  a  pool  between  the  deck  and  bulwark. 

We  were  both  of  us  capsized  in  a  second,  and  both  of  us  rolled, 
almost  together,  into  the  scuppers,  the  dead  Red-cap,  with  his  arms 
still  spread  out,  tumbling  stiffly  after  us.  So  near  were  we,  indeed, 
that  my  head  came  against  the  cockswain's  foot  with  a  crack  that 
made  my  teeth  rattle.  Blow  and  all,  I  was  the  first  afoot  again,  for 
Hands  had  got  involved  with  the  dead  body.  The  sudden  canting 
of  the  ship  had  made  the  deck  no  place  for  running  on ;  I  had  to 
find  some  new  way  of  escape,  and  that  upon  the  instant,  for  my  foe 
was  almost  touching  me.  Quick  as  thought,  I  sprung  into  the 
mizzen-shrouds,  rattled  up  hand  over  hand,  and  did  not  draw  a 
breath  till  I  was  seated  on  the  cross-trees. 

I  had  been  saved  by  being  prompt  ;  the  dirk  had  struck  not  half 
a  foot  below  me,  as  I  pursued  my  upward  flight ;  and  there  stood 
Israel  Hands  with  his  mouth  open  and  his  face  upturned  to  mine,  a 
perfect  statue  of  surprise  and  disappointment. 

Stevenson's  "Treasure  Island." 

Questions  for  Study.  (1)  State  in  one  sentence  of  your  own  the  cen- 
tral fact  of  this  story.  (2)  What  general  impression  does  the  story  make 
upon  the  reader's  mind  ?  (3)  One  way  in  which  the  impression  is  pro- 
duced is  by  the  rapid  succession  of  startling  events.  Name  two  other 
ways  in  which  the  impression  is  emphasized.  (4)  Where  are  similes 
used  ?  In  each  case  tell  what  they  add.  (5)  Select  the  nautical  words 
in  the  story,  give  their  meaning,  and  tell  why  they  are  appropriate  here. 
(6)  Does  the  story  seem  probable  ?    See  if  you  can  find  out  why. 


170  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


Ex.  2.  Tom's  Rescue  of  the  Lobster 

He  was  going  along  the  rock  in  three-fathom  water,  watching  the 
pollock  catch  prawns,  and  the  wrasses  nibble  barnacles  off  the  rocks, 
shells  and  all,  when  he  saw  a  round  cage  of  green  withes,  and  inside 
it,  looking  very  much  ashamed  of  himself,  sat  his  friend  the  lobster, 
twiddling  his  horns,  instead  of  thumbs. 

"  What  !  have  you  been  naughty,  and  have  they  put  you  in  the 
lock-up?"  asked  Tom. 

The  lobster  felt  a  little  indignant  at  such  a  notion,  but  he  was 
too  much  depressed  in  spirits  to  argue ;  so  he  only  said,  "  I  can't 
get  out." 

"  Why  did  you  get  in  ?  " 

"  After  that  nasty  piece  of  dead  fish."  He  had  thought  it  looked 
and  smelt  very  nice  when  he  was  outside,  and  so  it  did,  for  a  lobster ; 
but  now  he  turned  round  and  abused  it  because  he  was  angry  with 
himself. 

"  Where  did  you  get  in  ?  " 

"  Through  that  round  hole  at  the  top." 

"  Then  why  don't  you  get  out  through  it  ?  " 

"  Because  I  can't " ;  and  the  lobster  twiddled  his  horns  more 
fiercely  than  ever,  but  he  was  forced  to  confess. 

"  I  have  jumped  upwards,  downwards,  backwards,  and  sideways, 
at  least  four  thousand  times ;  and  I  can't  get  out :  I  always  get  up 
underneath  there,  and  can't  find  the  hole." 

Tom  looked  at  the  trap,  and  having  more  wit  than  the  lobster, 
he  saw  plainly  enough  what  was  the  matter ;  as  you  may  if  you  look 
at  a  lobster-pot. 

"  Stop  a  bit,"  said  Tom.  "  Turn  your  tail  up  to  me,  and  I  '11  pull 
you  through  hindforemost,  and  then  you  won't  stick  in  the  spikes." 

But  the  lobster  was  so  stupid  and  clumsy  that  he  could  n't  hit  the 
hole.  Like  a  great  many  fox-hunters,  he  was  very  sharp  as  long  as 
he  was  in  his  own  country ;  but  as  soon  as  they  get  out  of  it  they 
lose  their  heads ;  and  so  the  lobster,  so  to  speak,  lost  his  tail. 

Tom  reached  and  clawed  down  the  hole  after  him,  till  he  caught 
liold  of  him  ;  and  then,  as  was  to  be  expected,  the  clumsy  lobster 
pulled  him  in  headforemost. 


IMAGINATION  IN  NARRATION  171 

"  Hullo  !  here  is  a  pretty  business,"  said  Tom.  '•  Now  take  your 
gi'eat  claws  and  break  the  point  oft'  those  spikes,  and  then  we  shall 
both  get  out  easily." 

"  Dear  me,  I  never  thought  of  that,"  said  the  lobster ;  "  and  after 
all  the  experience  of  life  that  I  have  had  ! " 

But  they  had  not  got  half  the  spikes  away,  when  they  saw  a  great 
dark  cloud  over  them  ;  and,  lo  and  behold,  it  was  the  otter. 

How  she  did  grin  and  grin  when  she  saw  Tom.  "  Yar  !  "  said 
she,  "  you  little,  meddlesome  wretch,  I  have  you  now  !  I  will  serve 
you  out  for  telling  the  salmon  where  I  was  1 "  And  she  crawled  all 
over  the  pot  to  get  in. 

Tom  was  horribly  frightened,  and  still  more  frightened  when  she 
found  the  hole  in  the  top  and  squeezed  herself  right  down  through 
it,  all  eyes  and  teeth.  But  no  sooner  was  her  head  inside  than 
valiant  Mr.  Lobster  caught  her  by  the  nose  and  held  on. 

And  there  they  were  all  three  in  the  pot,  rolling  over  and  over, 
and  very  tight  packing  it  was.  And  the  lobster  tore  at  the  otter, 
and  the  otter  tore  at  the  lobster,  and  both  squeezed  and  thumped 
poor  Tom  till  he  had  no  breath  left  in  his  body  ;  and  I  don't  know 
what  would  have  happened  to  him  if  he  had  not  at  last  got  on  the 
otter's  back  and  safe  out  of  the  hole. 

He  was  right  glad  when  he  got  out ;  but  he  would  not  desert  his 
friend  who  had  saved  him  ;  and  the  first  time  he  saw  his  tail  upper- 
most he  caught  hold  of  it  and  pulled  with  all  his  might. 

But  the  lobster  would  not  let  go. 

"  Come  along,"  said  Tom  ;  "  don't  you  see  she  is  dead  ?  "  And 
so  she  was  quite  drowned  and  dead. 

And  that  was  the  end  of  the  wicked  otter. 

But  the  lobster  would  not  let  go. 

"  Come  along,  you  stupid  old  stick-in-the-mud,"  cried  Tom,  "  or 
the  fisherman  will  catch  you  !  "  And  that  was  true,  for  Tom  felt 
some  one  above  beginning  to  haul  up  the  pot. 

But  the  lobster  would  not  let  go. 

Tom  saw  the  fisherman  haul  him  up  to  the  boatside,  and  thought 
it  was  all  up  with  him.  But  when  Mr.  Lobster  saw  the  fisherman, 
he  gave  such  a  furious  and  tremendous  snap,  that  he  snapped  out  of 
his  hand,  and  out  of  the  pot,  and  safe  into  the  sea.     But  he  left  his 


172  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

knobbed  claw  behind  him ;  for  it  never  came  into  his  stupid  head 
to  let  go  after  all ;  so  he  just  shook  his  claw  off  as  the  easier  method. 
Tom  asked  the  lobster  why  he  never  thought  of  letting  go.  He 
said  very  determinedly  that  it  was  a  point  of  honor  among  lobsters. 
And  so  it  is.  Kingsley's  "  Water  Babies." 

Questions  for  Study.  (1)  State  in  one  sentence  of  your  own  the 
simple  facts  of  the  story.  (2)  Where  are  the  events  supposed  to  take 
place  ?  Who  is  Tom  ?  (3)  What  is  the  general  impression  produced  by 
the  story  ?  (4)  What  three  things  make  it  interesting  ?  (5)  How  much 
of  the  story  is  told  in  conversation  ?  Why  ?  (6)  Compare  the  number 
of  short  sentences  with  the  number  of  long  sentences.  What  is  the 
effect  of  the  prevailing  sentence? 

Ex.  3.  Sydney  Carton's  Sacrifice 

The  clocks  are  on  the  stroke  of  three,  and  the  furrow  ploughed 
among  the  populace  is  turning  round,  to  come  on  into  the  place  of 
execution,  and  end.  The  ridges  thrown  to  this  side  and  to  that 
now  crumble  in  and  close  behind  the  last  plough  as  it  passes  on,  for 
all  are  following  to  the  Guillotine.  In  front  of  it,  seated  in  chairs 
as  in  a  garden  of  public  diversion,  are  a  number  of  women  busily 
knitting.  On  one  of  the  foremost  chairs  stands  The  Vengeance, 
looking  about  for  her  friend. 

"  Therese  !  "  she  cries  in  her  shrill  tones.  "  Who  has  seen  her  ? 
Therese  Defarge  !  " 

"  She  never  missed  before,"  says  a  knitting  woman  of  the  sister- 
hood. 

"  No ;  nor  will  she  miss  now,"  cries  The  Vengeance  petulantly. 
"  Therese  !  " 

"  Louder,"  the  woman  recommends. 


The  second  tumbril  empties  and  moves  on ;  the  third  comes  up. 
Crash  !  —  and  the  knitting  women,  never  faltering  or  pausing  in 
their  work,  count  Two. 

The  supposed  Evr^monde  descends,  and  the  seamstress  is  lifted 
out  next  after  him.  He  has  not  relinquished  her  patient  hand  in 
getting  out,  but  still  holds  it  as  he  promised.     He  gently  places  her 


IMAGINATION  IN  NARRATION  173 

with  her  back  to  the  crashing  engine  that  constantly  whirrs  up  and 
falls,  and  she  looks  up  into  his  face  and  thanks  him. 

"  But  for  you,  dear  stranger,  I  should  not  be  so  composed,  for  I 
am  naturally  a  poor  little  thing,  faint  of  heart ;  nor  should  I  have 
been  able  to  raise  my  thoughts  to  Him  who  was  put  to  death,  that 
we  might  have  hope  and  comfort  here  to-day.  I  think  you  were  sent 
to  me  by  Heaven." 

"  Or  you  to  me,"  says  Sydney  Carton.  "  Keep  your  eyes  upon 
me,  dear  child,  and  mind  no  other  object." 

"  I  mind  nothing  while  I  hold  your  hand.  I  shall  mind  nothing 
when  I  let  it  go,  if  they  are  rapid." 

"  They  will  be  rapid.     Fear  not  !  " 

"Brave  and  generous  friend,  will  you  let  me  ask  you  one  last 
question?      I  am  very  ignorant,  and  it  troubles  me  —  just  a  little." 

"  Tell  me.  what  it  is." 

"I  have  a  cousin,  an  only  relative,  and  an  orphan,  like  myself, 
whom  I  love  very  dearly.  She  is  five  years  younger  than  I,  and  she 
lives  in  a  farmer's  house  in  the  south  country.  Poverty  parted  us, 
and  she  knows  nothing  of  my  fate,  —  for  I  cannot  write,  —  and  if  I 
could,  how  should  I  tell  her  I     It  is  better  as  it  is." 

"  Yes,  yes ;  better  as  it  is." 

"  What  I  have  been  thinking  as  we  came  along,  and  what  I  am 
still  thinking  now,  as  I  look  into  your  kind  strong  face  which  gives 
me  so  much  support,  is  this :  —  If  the  Republic  really  does  good  to 
the  poor,  and  they  come  to  be  less  hungry,  and  in  all  ways  to  suffer 
less,  she  may  live  a  long  time ;  she  may  even  live  to  be  old." 

"What  then,  my  gentle  sister?" 

"  Do  you  think,"  the  uncomplaining  eyes  in  which  there  is  so 
much  endurance  fill  with  tears,  and  the  lips  part  a  little  more 
and  tremble,  "  that  it  will  seem  long  to  me,  while  I  wait  for  her 
in  the  better  land,  where  I  trust  both  you  and  I  will  be  mercifully 
sheltered  ?  " 

"  It  cannot  be,  my  child ;  there  is  no  Time  there,  and  no  trouble 
there." 

"  You  comfort  me  so  much  !  I  am  so  ignorant.  Am  I  to  kiss 
you  now  ?     Is  the  moment  come  ?  " 


174  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

"Yes." 

She  kisses  his  lips;  he  kisses  hers;  they  solemnly  bless  each 
other.  The  spare  hand  does  not  tremble  as  he  releases  it ;  nothing 
worse  than  a  sweet,  bright  constancy  is  in  the  patient  face.  She 
goes  next  before  him  —  is  gone  ;  the  knitting  women  count  Twenty- 
two. 

"  I  am  the  Resurrection  and  the  Life,  saith  the  Lord ;  he  that 
believeth  in  Me,  though  he  were  dead,  yet  shall  he  live ;  and  who- 
soever liveth  and  believeth  in  Me,  shall  never  die." 

The  murmuring  of  many  voices,  the  upturning  of  many  faces, 
the  pressing  on  of  many  footsteps  in  the  outskirts  of  the  crowd,  so 
that  it  swells  forward  in  a  mass,  like  one  great  heave  of  water,  all 
flashes  away.     Twenty-three.         Sickens'  "  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities." 

Questions  for  Study.  (1)  Who  is  Evr^monde  ?  Who  is  the  sup- 
posed Evr^monde  ?  (2)  Why  have  they  changed  places  ?  (3)  Why  does 
Carton  call  his  own  life  a  failure  ?  (4)  How  does  the  act  told  in  this 
story  redeem  the  weakness  of  the  past?  (5)  State  in  one  sentence  of 
your  own  the  central  thought  of  the  story.  (6)  What  is  the  general 
impression  left  by  the  story?  How  does  Dickens  give  it?  (7)  What 
does  the  seamstress  add  to  the  story  ?  (8)  What  does  The  Vengeance 
add  to  the  story  ?  (9)  What  does  the  counting  of  the  knitting  women 
add  to  the  istory  ?  (10)  What  does  the  quotation  near  the  end  add  ? 
(11)  Explain  the  value  of  the  dialogue  in  the  story.  (12)  Where  is  the 
climax,  or  point  of  greatest  interest  ? 

123.  General  directions  for  the  use  of  imagination  in  nar- 
ration. The  pupil  will  find  the  following  suggestions 
worth  remembering  when  he  uses  his  imagination  in 
writing  stories. 

1.  Picture  the  events  to  your  own  mind  as  vividly  as 
if  you  actually  saw  the  events  take  place.  Keep  the 
picture  before  your  own  mind  throughout  the  writing. 

2.  Decide  what  setting  of  time,  place,  and  circumstance 
will  be  most  effective. 

3.  Decide  what  impression  is  to  be  emphasized. 


IMAGINATION  IN  NARRATION  175 

4.  Decide  where  the  climax  should  be,  and  work  to  give 
it  the  greatest  possible  effect.  Sometimes  the  climax  is 
emplrasized  by  being  made  suddenly  after  a  long  and 
gradual  approach ;  but  often  the  effect  is  heightened  by 
the  unexpected  termination  of  rapidly  increasing  mystery 
or  suspense. 

5.  Avoid  digressions  that  distract  the  attention  and 
lessen   the  interest. 

6.  Use  conversation  to  give  variety  and  to  distinguish 
the  personalities  of  the  people  who  figure  in  the  story.  It 
should  not  be  used,  however,  unless  it  serves  a  definite 
purpose  of  this  kind. 

7.  Use  words  that  call  up  definite  and  vivid  *^  mental 
pictures." 

EXERCISE 


Select  from  your  own  reading  a  stirring  account  of  a 
battle.  Point  out  the  setting,  the  descriptions  (if  any)  of 
the  actors,  and  the  climax. 

II 

Write  an  appropriate  setting  for  one  or  more  narratives 
to  be  written  from  the  following  suggestions : 

1.  A  story  of  camp  life. 

2.  The  account  of  an  important  business  transaction. 

3.  A  Christmas  story, 

4.  A  ghost  story. 

Ill 

Imagine  a  story  that  might  appropriately  begin  without  - 
any  character  description  or  setting.     Write  the  beginning 
of  sucli  a  story. 


176  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

IV 

Complete  the  following  stories  to  make  them  interesting: 

1.  Roger  Vane  was  turning  the  corner  of  Main  Street  on  to  State 
Street,  when  he  saw  two  rough-looking  men  come  running  from  the 
passage  which  led  from  his  father's  barn  to  the  street.  Almost 
at  the  same  moment  Roger  obtained  a  view  .  .  . 

2.  One  day  when  Helen  was  walking  in  the  woods  she  heard  a 
strange  rattling  sound,  and  looked  up  to  see  a  huge  snake  coiled  in 
the  path  ahead  of  her.     Her  first  impulse  .  .  . 


Write   an  imaginary  story,   suggested  by  the   picture 
called  To  the  Rescue,  given  on  the  opposite  page. 

VI 

Write  the  following  imaginary  autobiographies,  or  life- 
histories  told  in  the  first  person : 

1.  The  autobiography  of  a  pencil. 

2.  The  autobiography  of  a  homeless  kitten. 

3.  The    autobiography   of   a   penny.     (From   the   mint   to   my 
pocket.) 

4.  The  autobiography  of  a  Filipino. 

5.  The  autobiography  of  a  tramp. 

VII 
Write  stories  on  the  following  subjects : 

1.  The  StQry  of  a  Sewing-Machine. 

2.  The  Last  Meeting  of  our  Club, 

3.  How  I  Earned  my  First  Dollar. 

4.  How  I  Came  to  Lose  the  Train. 

5.  An  Attempt  that  Failed. 

6.  Sitting  for  a  Picture. 


IMAGINATION  IN  NARRATION 


177 


178  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

7.  My  First  Experience  witli  a  Telephone. 

8.  The  Biography  of  our  Hired  Man. 

9.  Maud's  Adventure  with  the  Wishing-Stone. 

10.  The  Romance  of  a  Lost  Letter. 

11.  How  the  Race  was  Won. 

12.  A  Visit  to  the  Menagerie. 

13.  An  Exciting  Contest. 

14.  A  Balloon  Voyage. 

15.  A  Trip  in  a  Canoe. 

SUMMARY 

124.  Imagination  aids  in  narration  by  suggesting  the 
underlying  causes  of  action,  by  furnishing  details  tliat  give 
to  a  simple  event  vital  human  interest,  and  by  creating  an 
ideal  story  more  fascinating  and  often  more  instructive  than 
a  mere  literal  record  of  occurrences.  Imagination  should 
be  used  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  deceive  by  a  pretense  of 
giving  literal  truth,  but  rather  to  create  an  impression  ol 
strong  probability  under  the  given  circumstances. 

In  writing  imaginary  stories,  the  student  should  picture 
the  supposed  events  as  vividly  as  possible.  He  should 
decide  carefully  upon  the  setting,  the  intended  impres- 
sion, and  the  climax  of  his  story.  All  digressions  that 
are  likely  to  distract  the  reader's  attention  and  weaken 
the  climax  should  be  avoided. 

The  descriptive  words  and  comparisons  chosen  should 
call  up  clear  and  vivid  pictures  to  the  mind.  When  the 
action  hastens  and  the  mind  is  in  suspense,  the  sentences 
should  be  rather  short  and  rapid.  Conversation  is  often 
useful  in  giving  variety  to  the  writing,  and  in  emphasizing 
the  personalities  of  the  actors  in  the  story. 


CHAPTER   VIII 
COLLECTION   OF   MATERIAL   FOR   A   THEME 

When  found,  make  a  note  of. —  Charles  Dickens. 

I.     INTRODUCTION 

125.  What  a  theme  is.  While  the  student  has  been 
gaining  skill  in  expressing  his  thouglit,  his  composition 
exercises  have  gradually  lengthened,  until  it  has  become 
convenient  to  give  them  a  definite  name.  By  theme,  we 
shall  mean  in  this  book  a  composition  exercise  of  consider- 
able length,  demanding  for  its  proper  preparation  more 
study  of  material,  arrangement,  and  form  of  expression 
than  has  hitherto  been  demanded. 

126.  Steps  in  the  preparation  of  a  theme.  Five  steps  are 
necessary  in  the  preparation  of  a  theme.  1.  Choice  and 
limitation  of  subject.  2.  Collection  of  .material.  3.  Mak- 
ing of  outline.  4.  Development  of  outline.  5.  Revision. 
These  steps  are  neither  arbitrary  nor  unnatural,  but  are 
so  inevitable  in  any  logical  thinking  or  writing  that  each 
usually  leads  rapidly  and  naturally  to  the  next. 

127.  Choice  and  limitation  of  the  subject.  If  the  writing  of 
themes  is  to  prove  a  pleasant  rather  than  a  distasteful 
task,  the  pupil  must  be  careful  not  to  choose  subjects 
entirely  unsuited  to  him.  '*  Eternity,"  "  Spring,"  "  Hap- 
piness," and  similar  vague  subjects,  should  not  be  selected 
by  the  pupils  oi-  assigned  by  the  teacher. 

179 


180  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

The  first  requirement  of  a  good  subject  is  that  it  shall 
be  one  in  which  the  writer  is  personally  interested,  and" 
about  which  he  knows  something  already,  and  can  find  out 
more.  The  second  requirement  is  that  it  shall  not  be  too 
broad  a  subject — like  '^  The  Recent  War  with  Spain,"  or 
"  Outdoor  Sports  "  —  for  then  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
confine  the  paper  to  any  reasonable  length.  Some  phase 
of  these  broad  general  subjects  —  like  "  Some  Causes  of  our 
Recent  Trouble  with  Spain,"  or  *'My  Favorite  Outdoor 
Sport "  —  may,  however,  be  entirely  suitable.  This  need 
of  definite  attention  to  the  appropriate  limitation  of  the  sub- 
ject cannot  he  emphasized  too  much.  Indeed^  a  large  part 
of  the  trouble  which  students  have  in  writing  themes  is  due 
to  vagueness  of  subject.  The  subject  should  also  have 
enough  value  in  itself  to  justify  the  time  spent  in  thinking 
and  writing  about  it. 

128.  Choice  of  the  title.  Although  the  subject  may  be 
definite,  the  title,  or  the  exact  words  in  which  the  subject 
is  to  be  expressed,  is  often  a  matter  of  perplexity.  If  the 
real  subject  is  kept  clearly  in  mind  during  the  writing, 
it  is  often  convenient  and  even  desirable  to  reserve  the 
final  wording  of  the  title  until  the  theme  is  finished. 

As  a  rule,  the  title  should  be  short.  It  should  some- 
times be  so  exact  as  to  suggest  in  a  single  phrase  the  cen- 
tral idea  of  the  writer.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  theme 
is  humorous  or  highly  imaginative,  or  for  any  reason 
intended  to  keep  the  mind  of  the  reader  in  suspense,  the 
title  may  be  such  as  to  pique  the  reader's  curiosity.  In  the 
latter  case  the  title  must  be  one  that  will  prove  later  to 
be  really  appropriate,  and  that  will  not  be  sensational. 


COLLECTION  OF  MATERIAL  FOR  A    THEME       181 

II.     SOURCES    OF   MATERIAL   FOR   A   THEME 

129.  Thought.  After  the  choice  of  the  subject  has  been 
made,  there  follows  the  important  work  of  collecting  the 
material.  As  in  the  case  of  shorter  exercises,  the  pupil 
should  make  his  own  thought  the  most  important  source 
of  material.  If  the  subject  is  within  the  range  of  his 
personal  experience  or  observation,  or  is  one  upon  whicli 
he  can  legitimately  use  his  imagination,  he  will  have  no 
temptation  to  rush  immediately  to  the  encyclopsedia  or 
the  gazetteer.  On  some  subjects,  however,  he  will  think 
at  first  that  he  has  no  ideas.  In  such  a  case  he  should  try 
to  think  about  the  subject,  and  record  even  the  thoughts 
which  seem  to  him  trivial  and  commonplace.  These  may 
prove  to  have  more  real  value  than  is  at  first  apparent  to 
him ;  at  any  rate,  they  will  suggest  other  ideas  and  tend 
to  make  his  work  original.  One  topic  will  naturally  sug- 
gest another,  and  if  the  subject  is  kept  in  mind  the  mate- 
rial will  accumulate.  The  habit  of  making  a  memorandum 
of  ideas  on  the  given  subject  as  soon  as  they  come  into 
the  mind  is  a  very  important  one,  for  if  these  notes  are 
not  made  at  once  the  ideas  will  perhaps  be  forgotten  when 
the  time  for  writing  the  theme  arrives. 

130.  Observation.  If  the  subject  is  one  upon  which  the 
student  can  make  his  own  observations, —  as,  for  example, 
"  An  Autumn  Walk  in  Langdon  Woods,"  —  he  should 
see  what  new  ideas  he  can  get  directly  from  personal 
experience. 

131.  Discussion.  While  thought  and  observation  are  the 
first  sources  of  material  for  a  theme,  it  is  often  desirable 


182  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

for  the  stiulent  to  consult  authorities  concerning  points  on 
which  his  knowledge  is  deficient.  Sometimes  it  is  helpful 
to  talk  the  subject  over  with  some  friend  or  acquaintance 
who  understands  it  thoroughly.  In  this  case  it  is  to  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  chief  object  of  discussion  is  the 
correction  and  enlargement  of  previous  ideas,  rather  than 
the  absorption  of  wholly  new  ideas. 

132.  Books.  Very  often  the  pupil  will  naturally  consult 
those  silent  friends  that  we  call  books.  Good  books  are 
invaluable  helpers  to  thought,  but  there  is  great  danger 
of  using  them  unwisely,  —  they  should  be  but  a  means  to 
an  end. 

III.     THE    USE    OF   A   LIBEARY 

133.  In  general.  A  library  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a 
repository  of  miscellaneous  collections  of  facts,  which  the 
student  is  to  seize  more  or  less  at  random  when  needed. 
It  should  be  thought  of  rather  as  a  gathering  of  the  master- 
minds of  the  ages,  the  results  of  whose  genius  and  learning 
may  become  the  student's  by  intelligent  and  painstaking 
interest.  What  is  obtained  from  them  depends  in  a  large 
measure,  as  in  the  case  of  other  friends,  on  what  is  brought 
to  them.  If  the  student  seeks  the  friendship  of  books  in 
a  spirit  of  indifference,  or  contented  ignorance,  he  will  fail 
to  get  much  help  or  inspiration.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he 
seeks  them  in  a  spirit  of  intelligent  appreciation  and 
genuine  interest,  there  is  hardly  any  limit  to  the  vistas 
they  may  open  to  him. 

134.  Methods  of  reading.  The  student  should  avoid 
desultory  and  thoughtless    reading,   and   choose    one    of 


COLLECTION   OF  MATERIAL   FOR  A    THEME       183 

tlie  three  good  ways  uf  using  a  library.  ^Fhese  methods 
of  reading  are  suggested  by  Bacon's  familiar  words : 
"  Some  books  are  to  be  tasted,  others  to  be  swallowed, 
and  some  few  to  be  chewed  and  digested ;  that  is,  some 
books  are  to  be  read  only  in  parts;  others  to  be  read, 
but  not  curiously;  and  some  few  are  to  be  read  wholly, 
and  with  diligence  and  attention."  Most  people  who 
use  a  library  recognize  these  three  methods  of  reading, 
but  many  of  them  make  a  wrong  application.  They 
only  "  taste  "  the  best  books ;  they  "  swallow"  the  encyclo- 
paedias ;  and  they  "  chew,"  if  not  "  digest,"  much  second- 
rate  fiction.  If  we  may  judge  from  Bacon's  own  character 
and  habits  of  study,  as  well  as  from  the  general  testimony 
of  good  scholars  of  every  generation,  it  is  the  reference 
books  that  should  be  "  tasted,"  and  that  discriminatingly. 
It  is  the  best  magazine  articles  and  other  good  current 
literature  that  should  be  "swallowed,"  or  read  rapidly. 
And  it  is  the  best  works  of  the  best  essayists,  historians, 
novelists,  and  poets  that  should  be  "  chewed  and  digested," 
until  careful  study  makes  their  thought  the  reader's  own. 

135.  Reference  books.  The  special  reference  books  that 
are  available  for  the  student  will  depend  somewhat  upon 
the  size  of  the  library  that  he  is  using.  In  general,  any 
collection  of  reference  books  includes  encyclopaedias, 
dictionaries,  and  gazetteers.  The  student  should  make 
it  a  point  to  ascertain  just  what  volumes  of  this  kind  are 
at  his  disposal,  and  what,  for  his  purpose,  is  the  special 
value  of  each  of  them. 

The  following  list  of  the  reference  books  in  a  small 
library  was  made  by  a  high-school  student,  and  written  on 


184  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

the  first  page  of  his  Library  Notebook.     The  books  that 

he    found  most  useful  for  his  own    particular  work   are 

indicated  by  stars.     Every  student  will  find  it  helpful  to 

make  a  similar  list  of  books  in  the  library  to  which  he 

has  access. 

Encyclopcedias 

Britannica  —  Exhaustive  and  scholarly,  but  not  for  ready 
reference. 

*  International  —  Comprehensive  ;  good  for  contemporary 
biography. 

*  Johnson's  Universal — Popular;  full  in  American  biog- 
raphy, politics,  and  natural  sciences. 

Chambers'  —  Brief  and  popular  in  character. 

Dictionaries  of  the  English  Language 

*  Webster's  International  —  Especially  good  for  definitions. 
Worcester's  —  Especially  good  for  spelling  and  pronun- 
ciation. 

Standard  —  Useful  for  technical  expressions  in  trade. 

*  Century  —  Fullest  and  most  perfect ;    gives  brief,  clear 

account  of   a  subject;   volume  of   proper   names   especially 

valuable. 

Biographical  Dictionaries 

*  Thomas'    Biographical    Dictionary  —  Brief,    reliable,    of 
great  men  of  all  countries. 

*  Men  and  Women  of  the  Time  —  Contemporary  English 
and  American.  i 

Classical  Dictionaries  I 

i 

Smith's  —  Greek  and  Boman  biography  and  mythology. 
Anthon's  —  Greek  and  Eoman  biography  and  mythology  ; 
full  on  geography. 

*  Gayley's    Classic    Myths  —  Greek,   Koman,   and   Norse 
mythology. 


COLLECTION  OF  MATERIAL   FOR   A    THEME       185 

Encyclopmdias  and  Dictionaries  of  English  Literature 

Chambers'  Encyclopaedia  —  Mostly  English  authors  with 
quotations  from  their  works. 

*  Allibone's  Dictionary  —  Brief  account  of  British  and 
American  authors. 

Warner's  Library  of  the  World's  Best  Literature  —  For 
selections. 

Stedman  and  Hutchinson's  Library  of  American  Literature 
— Tor  selections. 

Miscellaneous 

*  Lippincott's  Gazetteer  of  the  World  —  For  facts  of 
geography. 

*  Bartlett's  Familiar  Quotations  — Chiefly  poetry. 

*  Brewer's  Reader's  Handbook  —  Allusions,  references, 
plots,  and  stories. 

*  Wheeler's  Familiar  Allusions  —  Especially  about  statues, 
paintings,  palaces,  and  clubs. 

136.  Current  literature.  Current  literature  —  so  called 
because  its  value,  however  great  for  the  time  being,  is  but 
temporary  in  its  nature  —  is  in  a  large  measure  found 
in  magazines.  To  be  sure,  some  articles  in  our  best 
magazines  are  real  literature — that  is,  have  permanence 
because  of  their  beauty  of  thought  and  beauty  of  form  — 
and  are  reprinted  in  books.  By  far  the  larger  part  of  the 
magazine  articles,  however,  are  not  of  this  class.  If  one 
would  keep  abreast  of  contemporary  thought,  he  should 
read  this  current  literature,  but  "not  curiously." 

On  the  second  page  of  the  Library  Notebook  of  the 
pupil  just  mentioned  came  the  following  list  of  magazines 
and  newspapers  to  which  he  had  access. 


186  COMP.OSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Magazines  and  Newspapers 


General  culture. 


Harper's 

Century 

Forum  ) 

,y     , ,     .         .        -p,     .        \  Current  history. 

North  American  Review  )  "^ 

Arena  —  Social  and  political  problems. 

Popular  Science  Monthly  —  Science. 

Scientific  American  —  Useful  arts. 

Current  Literature  )  ,„.  ^   .      ,  , 

p       ^  >  The  names  explain  themselves. 

Review  of  Reviews  —  Brief  summary  of  best  magazine 
articles  of  month. 

TVi     O  +1     \\  ^^itorials  of  political  events  of  the  week. 

Great  Round  World  —  Simpler  and  briefer  form  of  the 
week's  news. 

Boston  Evening  Transcript  —  Daily  news,  well  chosen  and 
well  written. 

Springfield  Republican  —  Editorials  on  politics. 

Kew  York  Sun  —  Dramatic  criticism. 

New  York  Tribune  —  Musical  criticism. 

The  student's  careful  use  of  magazines  to  which  he  has 
access  will  enable  him  to  make  a  similar  list,  with  his  own 
comments. 

137.  Reading  for  pleasure  and  general  culture.  One  of  the 
most  valuable  uses  of  a  library  is  to  furnish  material  for 
a  general  course  of  reading.  By  this  means  some  of  the 
most  valuable  material  for  themes  is  collected  long  before 
the  writing  of  those  themes,  or  even  before  the  assignment 
of  the  subjects.  Since  the  student's  own  ideas  are  the 
most  valuable  source  of  material,  and  since  he  cannot  get 


COLLECTION  OF  MATERIAL  FOR  A    THEME      187 

his  ideas  on  all  subjects  by  direct  observation  or  experience, 
those  ideas  which  he  has  made  his  own  the  most  thoroughly, 
by  long  thought,  are  likely  to  be  the  most  valuable.  Any 
good  book  will  help  the  reader  not  only  to  think  better 
but  to  write  better.  It  would  be  impossible  in  a  short 
space  to  suggest  a  list  of  books  that  would  interest  all 
classes  of  young  readers.  The  list  given  below  is  made 
from  a  large  number  of  lists  prepared  by  high-school 
students  themselves,  by  teachers,  and  by  librarians.  No 
attempt  has  been  made  to  arrange  the  books  by  subjects  or 
by  authors.  In  general,  the  books  named  in  the  first  half 
of  the  list  are  likely  to  be  familiar  to  students  by  the  time 
they  are  half  through  the  high-school  course.  Most  of  the 
other  books  will  appeal  to  them  more  in  their  last  two 
years'  work. 

The  student  may  add  to  this  list  other  books  which  he 
finds  to  be  of  unquestioned  excellence. 


A  Few  Books  well    Worth  Reading 


Wake  Robin  .         .         •         .         . 

Bird  Neighbors 

Among  the  Moths  and  Butterflies 

Progress  in  the  Nineteenth  Century 

When  I  Was  a  Boy  in  Cliina 

The  Merry  Adventures  of  Robin  Hood 

The  Electrical  Boy 

Stories  from  Homer 

Seven  Little  Sisters 

Little  Women 

Little  Men    . 

Hans  Brinker 


John  Burroughs 
Neltje  Blanchan 
Julia  P.  Ballard 
Elbridge  Brooks 
Yan  Phou  Lee 
Howard  Pyle 
John  Trowbridge 
A.  J.  Church 
Jane  Andrews 
Louisa  M.  Alcott 

Mary  Mapes  Dodge 


188 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


Alice  in  Wonderland 

.     Lewis  Carroll 

Through  the  Looking-Glass 

u                   u 

Water  Babies 

.     Charles  Kingsley 

Wild  Animals  I  Have  Know 

ri        .     Ernest  Seton-Thompson 

Jungle  Books  (First  and  Secc 

)nd)    .     Rudyard  Kipling 

Evangeline,  and  The  Courts] 

lip  of 

Miles  Standish   . 

Henry  W.  Longfellow 

Tom  Brown's  School  Days  at  1 

^ugby     Thomas  Hughes 

Tom  Brown  at  Oxford    . 

a                (( 

The  Boy's  King  Arthur 

.     Sidney  Lanier 

Snowbound    . 

.     John  G.  Whittier 

Dealing  with  the  Fairies 

.     George  Macdonald 

Nights  with  Uncle  Eemus 

.     Joel  C.  Harris 

Tales  from  Shakespeare 

.     Charles  and  Mary  Lamb 

Eobinson  Crusoe    . 

.     Daniel  Defoe              ♦ 

The  Pilgrim's  Progress  . 

.     John  Bunyan 

Ramona 

.     Helen  Hunt  Jackson 

The  Lady  of  the  Lake  . 

.     Sir  Walter  Scott 

Marmion 

U               (I                 u 

Ivanhoe 

a            (I              (( 

Kenilworth    . 

i(              ((                 cc 

The  Talisman 

(I            u              a 

Henry  Esmond 

.     W.  M.  Thackeray 

Pendennis 

a                  u 

The  Newcomes 

i(                  a 

A  Christmas  Carol 

.     Charles  Dickens 

David  Copperfield . 

U                         (( 

A  Tale  of  Two  Cities     . 

i(                        (C 

Westward  Ho         .         .         . 

.     Charles  Kingsley 

The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii 

.     Bulwer-Lytton 

Judith  Shakespeare 

.     William  Black 

The  Merchant  of  Venice 

.     William  Shakespeare 

Julius  Caesar  . 

"               '' 

As  You  Like  It      .         .         . 

a                    11 

COLLECTION   OF  MATERIAL  FOR  A    THEME      189 


Treasure  Island      .... 
The  Master  of  Ballantrae 

Ben-Hur 

Innocents  Abroad  .... 
Colonel  Carter  of  Cartersville 
The  Last  of  the  Mohicans 
John  Halifax,  Gentleman 
The  Man  without  a  Country 
A  Little  Book  of  Profitable  Tales  . 
Lorna  Doone ..... 
Silas  Marner.         .... 
Adam  Bede    ..... 
The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables 
The  Scarlet  Letter 
The  Letters  of  Robert  Louis  Steven- 
son    . 
Idyls  of  the  King 
The  Princess 
Hamlet 
Macbeth 
The  Tempest 
Tales  and  Poetry 
Dr.  Sevier 


Robert  Louis  Stevenson 

Lew  Wallace 
Samuel  L.  Clemens 
F.  Hopkinson  Smith 
J.  Fenimore  Cooper 
Dinah  Mulock  Craik 
Edward  Everett  Hale 
Eugene  Field 
Richard  Blackmore 
"  George  Eliot " 

Nathaniel  Hawthorne 


Sidney  Colvin  (editor). 
Alfred  Tennyson 

n  u 

William  Shakespeare 


Edgar  Allan  Poe 
George  W.  Cable 


138.  Suggestions  about  the  use  of  a  library.  If  the  follow- 
ing simple  suggestions  are  observed,  pupils  will  be  saved 
much  unnecessary  labor. 

1.  Ascertain  as  definitely  as  possible  beforehand  what 
facts  you  are  to  look  for  and  in  what  books  those  facts 
are  to  be  found.  Even  a  well-known  senator  not  long 
ago  entered  a  great  library  and  demanded  "A  little  red 
book  that  has  something  about  Michigan  in  it  and  that 


190  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

he  had  out  three  years  before."     It  is  unnecessary  to  say 
that  hours  of  search  failed  to  find  the  book. 

2.  If  you  wish  to  collect  material  from  several  books,  and 
do  not  know  what  books  are  available,  use  the  Catalogue. 
Suppose  your  subject  is  "  The  Search  for  the  North  Pole." 
Under  "  North  Pole  "  or  "  Exploration  "  you  will  probably 
find  references  to  Nansen,  Peary,  and  other  explorers.  If 
you  look  up  each  of  these  names  in  turn,  you  will  find  a  list 
of  the  special  books  to  be  consulted. 

3.  If  you  wish  to  use  magazine  articles,  —  as  you  often 
have  occasion  to  do  when  the  subject  is  one  of  recent 
interest,  —  consult  the  "Poole's  Index,"  a  series  of  bound 
volumes  which  stand  in  the  same  relation  to  the  best  maga- 
zine articles  as  the  Catalogue  to  the  books  of  the  library. 

4.  When  you  have  ascertained  what  books  and  maga- 
zine articles  are  at  your  disposal,  select  those  that  seem 
most  likely  to  be  interesting  and  authoritative.  If  you 
need  advice  about  what  are  the  best  for  your  purpose, 
consult  your  teacher  or  the  librarian. 

5.  Study  carefully  the  Table  of  Contents  and  the  Index 
to  note  the  author's  development  of  the  subject,  his 
arrangement  of  the  parts  of  that  subject,  and  the  chapters 
most  likely  to  prove  valuable  for  your  purpose. 

6.  If  time  permits,  "saturate  yourself  with  the  subject," 
i.e.  read  thoughtfully  but  rapidly  for  your  own  informa- 
tion and  interest.  You  need  to  know  much  more  about 
the  subject  than  you  will  have  time  to  tell  about  in  your 
theme.  There  is  a  danger  of  too  general  reading,  but 
it  is  not  so  great  as  the  danger  (^f  gathering  a  few  discon- 
nected facts  to  be  written  down  in  a  theme  almost,  if  not 
quite,  in  the  author's  exact  words. 


COLLECTION  OF  MATERIAL  FOR  A    THEME      191 

7.  Reread  the  most  important  parts  and  make  your 
notes  for  the  theme.  Unless  the  article  or  the  chapter  has 
been  fully  outlined  by  the  author  at  the  beginning,  or  by 
side-headings,  it  will  be  necessary  sometimes  to  search  for 
the  topic.  This  is  not  always  a  disadvantage,  for  it  helps 
to  show  the  student  what  the  relation  of  the  parts  was 
intended  to  be.  After  a  time  he  will  find  it  comparatively 
easy  to  take  his  notes  in  outline  form  at  first,  but  as  this 
is  a  matter  of  practice,  and  the  outlines  made  so  far  have 
been  simple  and  brief,  it  may  be  easier  to  write  the  impor- 
tant facts  in  the  form  of  "catch-words,"  such  as  were  sug- 
gested in  Section  76.  Occasionally  the  student  will  want 
to  take  a  sentence  or  a  phrase  in  the  exact  words  of  the 
author.  This  is  allowable,  if  he  always  remembers  to  give 
full  credit  for  it,  either  by  the  use  of  quotation  marks,  or 
by  the  addition  of  the  author's  name.  As  a  rule,  these 
quotations  should  be  few  and  brief,  and  used  only  when  it 
seems  impossible  to  express  the  idea  in  any  other  suitable 
way.  Notes  should  contain,  besides  the  outline  and  the 
quotations,  any  conclusions  or  impressions  of  the  reader's 
own.  These  will  be  particularly  valuable  later  in  expand- 
ing the  notes  and  outlines  into  a  theme. 

EXERCISE 

I 

Select  five  good  theme  subjects  from  each  of  the  follow- 
ing sources  and  give  the  reasons  for  your  choice : 

1.  Your  own  experience  or  o}>8ervation. 

2.  Current  topics  discussed  in  the  newspapers. 

3.  Topics  discussed  in  class. 


192  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

II 

Comment  on  the  following  theme  subjects,  telling  which 
seem  to  you  good  from  the  point  of  view  of  interest  to 
yourself  and  other  people : 

1.  The  Taj  Mahal. 

2.  Confucius. 

3.  Treasures  of  the  Klondike. 

4.  The  Capture  of  Aguinaldo. 
6.  Illustrating  as  an  Art. 

6.  The  Printing  of  a  Book. 

7.  The  Pan-American  Exposition. 

8.  Yacht  Racing. 

9.  A  First  Sight  of  "  The  Great  Stone  Face." 

10.  Unknown  Heroes. 

11.  Walter  Scott  and  Marjorie  Fleming.  ♦ 

12.  The  Character  of  the  Puritans. 

Ill 
Limit  the  following  subjects,  as  suggested,  to  make  them 
definite^  and  appropriate  to  a  theme  of  about  six  hundred 
words  : 

1.  Natural  Caves. 

2.  Flowers. 

3.  China. 

4.  Success. 

5.  Explorations. 

Limit  three  of  the  following  subjects  to  make  them 
interesting  to  three  different  classes  of  people : 

1.  Inventions. 

2.  Public  Libraries. 

3.  The  Panama  Canal. 

4.  Golf. 

5.  Immigration. 


COLLECTION  OF  MATERIAL  FOR  A    THEME      193 


Comment  on  the  appropriateness  of  the  following  titles 
to  the  subjects  treated: 

1.  Sidewalk  Education.  —  A  protest  against  the  bad  eifect  on 
language,  manners,  and  morals,  of  allowing  children  to  spend  so 
much  time  on  the  street. 

2.  Bartered  Birthrights.  —  Sacrifices  of  honor  for  political,  mili- 
tary, or  social  position. 

3.  Uncle  Sam's  White  Elephant.  —  Complications  arising  about 
the  government  of  the  Philippines. 

4.  A  Game  of  Hide-and-Seek. —  An  account  of  fishing  for  a  wily 
trout. 

5.  "  Excelsior  !  "  —  An  appeal  for  greater  enthusiasm  in  athletics, 
based  on  the  successes  of  the  past. 

6.  A  Brave  Deed.  —  An  engineer's  rescue  of  a  little  child,  by 
snatching  her  from  in  front  of  his  own  engine. 

VI 

State  exactly  what  books  or  magazines  you  would  read 
in  order  to  collect  material  for  themes  on  the  following 
subjects,  and  write  out  the  theme  notes  on  any  three  of 
the  subjects : 

Note.  —  To  make  this  list  you  must  consult  the  catalogue 
of  the  nearest  library  to  see  what  books  and  magazines  are 
available,  and  then  examine  them  carefully  enough  to  know 
which  of  them  contain  really  valuable  material  for  your  use. 

1.  St.  Cecilia. 

2.  The  Making  of  Pottery. 

3.  The  Laud  of  the  Midnight  Sun. 

4.  Haunts  of  Shakespeare. 

5.  Our  National  Songs. 


194  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

VII 

Select  a  theme  subject  which  especially  interests  you. 
State  all  the  sources  of  material  that  you  would  use,  and 
write  out  your  notes  from  tjiis  material. 

SUMMARY 

139.  By  theme,  as  used  in  this  chapter,  is  meant  a  care- 
fully prepared,  well-arranged,  and  well-written  composition, 
requiring  more  time,  labor,  and  skill  than  the  short  papers 
written  in  class  or  hitherto  required  in  the  daily  exercises. 

The  steps  in  the  preparation  of  the  theme  are  :  the  choice 
and  limitation  of  a  subject,  the  collection  of  material,  the 
making  of  the  outline,  the  development  of  the  outline, 
and  the  revision  of  the  theme. 

The  subject  should  be  interesting,  within  the  range  of 
the  writer's  capacity,  and  of  real  importance  in  itself. 

The  title  (the  words  in  which  the  subject  is  expressed) 
should  be  short,  suggestive,  and  appropriate. 

The  chief  sources  of  material  for  a  theme,  besides  the 
writer's  own  thoughts,  are  observation,  discussion,  and 
books. 

A  library  should  be  used  intelligently,  studiously,  and 
discriminately.  Some  acquaintance  should  be  made  with 
the  special  merits  of  the  various  reference  books.  The 
best  current  literature,  supplied  by  magazines  and  news- 
papers, should  be  read  rapidly  for  the  cf)ntemporary 
thought  of  the  day.  As  many  standard  Ix^oks  as  possible 
should  be  read  and  reread  thoughtfully,  so  that  intimacy 
with  them  may  give  not  only  general  culture  but  also 
literary  and  spiritual  uplift. 


CHAPTER   IX 
DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   OUTLINE   AND   THE   THEME 

Nothing  goes  l)y  lack  in  composition  ;  it  allows  of  no  trick.  The  best  you 
can  write  will  be  the  best  you  are.  The  author's  character  is  read  from  title- 
page  to  end.  —  Thoreau. 

I.     DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   OUTLINE 

140.  What  a  theme  outline  is.  After  the  collection  of 
material  for  the  theme,  the  next  step  is  the  making  of  the 
outline,  and  from  that,  the  development  of  the  theme.  A 
theme  outline  is  a  properly  coordinated  arrangement  of 
the  important  facts  which  are  to  be  included  in  the  theme. 
As  has  been  suggested  before,  it  is  usually  a  condensed 
form  of  the  notes. 

141.  Value  of  the  outline.  Some  students  are  apt  to  think 
that  the  making  of  the  outline  is  a  waste  of  time  or  that 
it  tends  to  make  writing  an  artificial  process  by  restricting 
the  spontaneity  of  thought.  This  idea  is  on  the  whole 
illogical,  and  is  disproved  by  experience.  Tlie  outline 
bears  the  same  relation  to  the  theme  that  the  human 
skeleton  does  to  the  body  which  contains  it;  that  is,  it 
furnishes  strength  and  symmetry.  If  the  outline  becomes 
in  the  hands  of  the  thoughtless  student  an  end  instead  of 
a  means,  it  fails  to  fulfill  its  purpose ;  but  that  is  the  fault 
of  the  writer  and  not  of  the  outline. 

105 


196  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

142.  Essentials  of  a  good  outline.  To  be  useful  the  out- 
line must  have  unity ;  that  is,  it  should  have  a  few 
main  topics  for  which  all  preceding  topics  prepare  and 
which  all  succeeding  topics  complete.  These  main  topics 
should  bear  some  necessary  and  logical  relation  to  one 
another.  They  may  follow  the  chronological  order,  as 
in  a  historical  or  biographical  sketch ;  they  may  bear  the 
relation  of  a  whole  to  its  parts,  as  in  a  description  ;  or 
they  may  have  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect,  as  in  some 
arguments.  When  these  relations  are  combined,  the  unity 
of  the  outline  is  often  strongly  marked. 

The  outline  should  have  as  much  simplicity  as  is  con- 
sistent with  the  need  of  making  it  cover  the  ground  ©f 
the  subject-matter  of  the  theme.  There  should  be  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  main  topics  to  give  a  fair  idea  of  the 
subject  treated,  but  not  so  many  as  to  Ije  confusing  or 
wearisome. 

The  outline  should  also  have  proportion.  While  unity 
implies  proportion,  the  necessity  for  proportion  is  so 
great  as  to  demand  special  care.  The  sub-topics  should 
be  properly  subordinated  to  the  main  topic,  and  also  the 
most  important  main  topic  should  be  given  its  due  promi- 
nence by  position,  by  wording,  and  by  the  number  of 
sub-topics.  Since  the  outline  is  the  working  plan  of  the 
theme,  and  since  only  a  few  topics  can  be  treated  fully, 
particular  care  in  the  proportion  of  the  outline  is  most 
important.  The  power  to  select  the  essential  features 
of  any  object,  event,  or  truth  is  strong  in  some  people, 
and  comparatively  weak  in  others.  But  in  all  cases  it 
can  be  cultivated  by  careful  study,  and  by  constant  prac- 
tice in  composition. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  OUTLINE  AND    THEME        197 

143.  Time  of  making  the  outline.  Pupils  often  make  the 
mistake  of  writing  an  outline  too  soon  after  taking  notes 
on  the  subject.  The  material  should,  if  possible,  be 
collected  some  time  before  the  writing  of  the  outline. 
This  method  of  work  has  the  advantage  of  giving  the 
student  plenty  of  time  in  which  to  digest  his  material,  and 
to  forget  the  exact  form  in  which  he  originall}^  found 
it.  Before  making  the  outline  he  probably  will  be  able  to 
add  to  his  notes,  because  new  ideas  have  been  suggested 
to  him  by  continued  thought  on  the  subject.  If  he  has 
made  the  material  which  he  has  collected  really  his  own, 
the  outline  will  shape  itself  easily. 

144.  Steps  in  making  the  outline.  There  are  five  impor- 
tant steps  in  the  making  of  an  outline.  Sometimes  these 
steps  follow  each  other  so  rapidly  that  the  mind  hardly 
distinguishes  them,  but  they  must  always  be  taken. 

1.  The  statement  of  the  definitely  limited  subject. 

2.  Selection  of  the  point  of  view. 

3.  Selection  and  arrangement  of  the  main  topics. 

4.  Subdivision  of  the  main  topics. 

5.  Revision  to  secure  greater  unity,  simplicity,  and 
proportion. 


II.     DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   THEME 

145.  Principal  topics.  The  expansion  of  the  main  topics 
of  the  outline  will  evidently  make  the  large  part  of  the 
body  of  the  theme.  These  topics  furnish  the  general  state- 
ments, and  the  sub-topics  the  details.     This  subordination 


198  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

of  thought  should  be  shown  in  the  development  of  the 
paragraphs  and  even  in  the  writing  of  separate  sentences. 
In  Chapters  XII,  XIII,  and  XIV  is  shown  what  is  meant 
by  such  a  subordination  of  thought. 

146.  Beginning  of  the  theme.  The  student  sometimes 
wastes  time  in  deciding  how  to  begin  his  theme.  The  key- 
note of  a  good  beginning  is  directness.  Many  themes  start 
directly  into  a  description  or  a  story.  The  outline  should 
suggest  the  thought,  if  not  the  wording,  of  the  opening 
sentence.  Sometimes,  however,  some  simple  introduction 
is  required  to  enable  the  writer  to  give  his  own  point  of 
view,  or  to  suggest  a  suitable  setting  for  his  thought. 
Sometimes  a  single  sentence  will  suffice,  but  it  should 
usually  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  arrest  the  attention,  and, 
while  making  clear  the  general  purpose  of  the  writer,  leave 
a  pleasing  sense  of  uncertainty  as  to  the  details  of  what  he 
is  to  tell. 

No  part  of  the  theme  furnishes  more  scope  for  the 
writer's  originality  or  requires  more  skill.  No  set  rules 
can  be  given  for  this  part  of  the  work.  The  best  help 
will  be  obtained  by  studying  the  beginnings  of  the  writ- 
ings of  standard  authors.  Study  the  examples  given  below 
and  infer,  as  well  as  you  can,  their  relation  to  what  would 
naturally  follow.  You  will  notice  that  in  the  first  example 
a  brief  epigrammatic  statement  is  made  to  arouse  the 
interest.  In  the  second  example  the  informal  beginning 
gives  the  reader  a  personal  interest  in  what  is  to  be  said. 
In  the  third  example  a  short  quotation  arrests  the  atten- 
tion. The  student  may  use  any  one  of  these  methods  of 
beginning,  if  it  serves  his  purpose  ;   but,  above  all,  he 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  OUTLINE  AND    THEME        199 

should  ht'  simple  and  natural,  and  give  free  expressiou  to  his 
own  individuality,  and  his  constantly  developing  taste. 

Ex.  1.    Beginning  of   a   theme  entitled  "President   McKinley's 
Philippine  Policy." 

To  criticise  the  action  of  another  is  easy,  but  to  act  more  wisely 
ourselves  is  often  hard.  Some  of  the  critics  of  President  McKinley's 
policy  in  regard  to  the  Philippines  have  failed  to  remember  this. 

Ex.  2.    Beginning  of   a   theme  entitled   "  President  Cleveland's 
Double." 

Not  long  ago,  1  heard  a  story  about  ex-President  Cleveland  which 
was  new  to  me  and  which  interested  me  intensely.  This  stoiy  was 
told  by  an  old  servant  of  the  family,  and  illustrates  well  several 
marked  traits  in  Mr.  Cleveland's  character.  I  condense  the  story 
and  tell  it  in  my  own  words. 

Ex.  3.   Beginning  of  a  theme  entitled  "  The  Reign  of  Victoria." 

"  Uneasy  lies  the  head  that  wears  a  crown."  The  truth  of  this 
saying  has  been  illustrated  in  the  life  of  many  a  monarch,  but  it 
seems  almost  to  be  disproved  in  the  case  of  Queen  Victoria,  whose 
reign  has  been  one  of  peace,  prosperity,  and  progress. 

147.  Ending  of  the  theme.  Young  writers  are  likely  to 
make  one  of  two  mistakes  in  ending  a  theme,  —  that  of 
stopping  too  abruptly,  or  of  not  knowing  when  to  stop. 
Often  some  brief  concluding  paragraph  is  needed,  except 
in  the  case  of  a  story  in  which  the  climax  may  be  abruptly 
made.  This  paragraph  may  give  a  summary  of  what  has 
preceded,  or  may  make  inferences  from  it.  It  should 
strengthen  what  precedes  rather  than  develop  a  new 
thought.  Although  not  intended  to  attract  attention  to 
itself,  it  should  not  be  so  tame  as  to  cause  a  sudden  drop 
in  interest. 


200  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Under  some  circumstances  the  following  theme  endings 
would  be  appropriate. 

Ex.  1.    Ending    of    a    theme    entitled     "  Character    of    Queen 
Elizabeth." 

From  these  facts  of  history,  it  seems  that  a  fair  estimate  requires 
that  we  distinguish  between  the  private  and  the  public  character 
of  Queen  Elizabeth.  As  a  sovereign  she  was  energetic,  wise,  and 
clever.  As  a  woman  she  varied  from  grave  to  gay,  wise  to  foolish, 
kind  to  cruel,  and  faithful  to  faithless.  Elizabeth  the  queen  was 
a  strong  and  reliable  ruler;  Elizabeth  the  woman  was  often  the 
creature  of  the  hour.  * 

Ex.  2.    Ending  of  a  theme  entitled  "The  United  States  vs.  The 
North  American  Indians." 

In  consideration  of  these  facts  we  maintain  that  the  United  States 
government  should  more  seriously  consider  its  threefold  duty  toward 
the  North  American  Indians.  The  United  States  should  deal  hon- 
estly in  time  of  treaty  and  purchase  ;  deal  humanely  in  war  ;  and 
deal  generously  as  to  political  and  social  training  in  time  of  peace. 

148.  Revision.  After  the  theme  has  been  entirely- 
written,  careful  revision  is  necessary.  This  should  dis- 
tinctly aim  to  improve  the  logical  development  of  the 
thought  by  throwing  the  emphasis  where  it  is  most 
needed  and  by  using  care  in  transition  ;  to  increase  the 
strength  and  beauty  of  the  expression  of  the  thought  by 
a  more  careful  choice  of  words,  by  a  better  arrangement 
of  those  words  in  sentences,  and  by  special  attention  to 
the  beginning  and  the  ending.  If  the  theme  has  been  care- 
fully written  in  the  first  place,  the  revision  that  has  been 
suggested  will  be  sufficient.  If,  however,  the  student 
finds  that  his  paper  is  very  unsatisfactory,  he  should  write 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  OUTLINE  AND    THEME        201 

the  theme  in  an  entirely  new  form,  keeping  more  strictly  to 
the  outline,  if  he  is  sure  that  that  outline  does  not  itself 
need  revision. 

EXERCISE 


Criticise  these  two  outlines  for  wording  as  well  as  for 
unity,  simplicity,  and  proportion,  and  rewrite  if  necessary: 

1.  Outline  of  a  theme  entitled  "  Modern  Uses  of  Paper." 

I.    Introduction.  —  Invention  of  paper. 
II.    Common  uses. 

1.  Writing. 

2.  Printing. 

3.  Wrapping. 

4.  Drawing. 

5.  Blotting. 

6.  Tracing. 

7.  Filtering. 

8.  Wall  covering. 

III.  Other  uses. 

1.  Car  wheels. 

2.  Pails  and  pans. 

3.  String. 

4.  Tissue  flowers,  napkins,  etc. 

5.  Carpets. 

6.  Money. 

7.  Gun-wads. 

IV.  Conclusion.  —  Characteristics  of  paper  which  adapt  it 

to  these  and  many  new  uses. 

2.  Outline  of  a  theme  entitled  «  The  Children's  Crusade." 

I.    Introduction General    nature    and    causes    of    the 

Crusade. 
II.   Leaders  of  the  Children's  Crusade. 


202  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

III.  The  Army. 

1.  Size  and  character. 

2.  Divisions. 

IV.  Results. 

1.  Terrible  loss  of  life. 

2.  Injury  to  the  cause. 

II 
Supply  sub-topics  to  complete  the  following  outlines : 

1.  Outline  of  a  theme  entitled  "  Lamgdon  Woods  in  Autumn." 

I.    Introduction.  —  Circumstances     connected     with     the 

writer's  trip. 
II.    General  impressions. 

III.  Vegetation. 

IV.  Animal  life. 
V.    Conclusion. 

2.  Outline  of  a  theme  entitled  "  Adventures  of  an  Umbrella." 

I.    Introduction.  —  Description  of  the  Umbrella. 
II.  Sale  to  Mr.  Winthrop  of  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York. 

III.  Exchange  at  a  party. 

IV.  Theft  from  the  new  possessor. 
V.    Final  rest  in  an  ash-heap. 

Ill 
Write  an  outline  on  each  of  the  following  subjects : 

1.  An  Auction  Sale. 

2.  Merits  and  Defects  of  the  Daily  Newspaper. 

IV 
Write  a  theme  on  either  of  the  outlines  just  prepared 
in  III. 

V 
Write  a  suitable  beginning  and  ending  for  each  of  the 
themes  outlined  in  divisions  I  and  II   of  this  exercise. 
Give  as  much  variety  and  individuality  as  possible. 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   OUTLINE  AND    THEME        203 
SUMMARY 

149.  A  theme  outline  is  a  properly  coordinated  arrange- 
ment of  the  important  facts  which  are  to  be  included  in 
the  theme.     It  is  usually  a  condensed  form  of  the  notes. 

The  outline  is  not  an  end  in  itself,  but  a  means  of 
giving  strength  and  symmetry  to  the  theme.  Its  essen- 
tials are :  unity,  proportion,  and  as  much  simplicity  as  is 
consistent  with  a  fair  presentation  of  the  subject. 

The  outline  should  not  be  made  until  the  material  is 
somewhat  digested.  There  are  five  steps  in  the  process  of 
its  making :  the  statement  of  the  subject ;  the  selection  of 
the  point  of  view ;  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  the 
main  topics ;  the  subdivision  of  the  main  topics ;  and  the 
revision  necessary  to  secure  greater  unity,  proportion,  and 
simplicity. 

In  the  development  of  the  theme  from  the  outline,  the 
main  topics  usually  furnish  the  general  statements,  and  the 
sub-topics,  the  details. 

The  beginning  of  the  theme  should  usually  be  as  direct 
and  simple  as  possible.  When  needed,  an  introduction 
may  give  the  writer's  point  of  view,  or  furnish  a  suitable 
setting  for  his  thought.  This  should  be  brief  and  to 
the  point.  A  quotation,  an  anecdote,  or  a  pithy  saying 
that  piques  the  reader's  curiosity  is  often  effective,  but 
the  writer  should  depend  upon  his  own  originality  rather 
than  upon  a  set  rule. 


CHAPTER    X 
ESSENTIAL   QUALITIES   OF  THE   THEME 

The  best  style  of  writing,  as  well  as  the  most  forcible,  is  the  plainest. 

Horace  Greeley, 

Successful  writers  learn  at  last  what  they  should  learn  at  first,  —  to  be 
intelligently  simple.  H.  W.  Shaw. 

150.  General  characteristics  of  the  theme.  The  two  preced- 
ing chapters  have  dealt  chiefly  with  the  securing  of 
material,  the  making  of  the  outline,  and  the  expansion  of 
the  outline  into  the  theme.  To  complete  the  study  of  the 
theme  there  still  remains  the  discussion  of  three  funda- 
mental qualities,  the  presence  of  which  assures  unques- 
tioned excellence  in  all  composition  work.      These  are : 

(1)  Unity,  which  has  to  do  with  the  choice  of  material; 

(2)  Coherence,  which  has  to  do  with  arrangement  with  a 
view  to  clearness ;  and  (3)  Emphasis,  which  has  to  do  with 
arrangement  with  a  view  to  proportion. 

I.     UNITY 

151.  Unity  in  nature.  Of  these  essential  qualities  of  the 
theme,  unity  is  perhaps  the  most  fundamental.  This 
quality  is  so  common  in  nature  that  we  often  overlook  its 
presence.  It  is  frequently  to  be  found,  however:  for 
example,  in  the  symmetry  of  the  leaf,  the  veins  and 
indentations  of  which  are  always  perfectly  balanced  about 

204 


ESSENTIAL    QUALITIES   OF   THE    THEME  205 

an  axis;  and  in  the  grace  of  the  tree,  the  twigs  and 
branches  of  which  are  so  evidently  the  outgrowth  of  the 
parent  trunk.  Unity  is  as  truly  present  in  some  land- 
scapes, but  more  search  is  usually  required  to  find  it. 
When  the  central  feature  of  the  view  has  once  been  found, 
the  other  objects  are  seen  to  be  grouped  about  it. 

152.  Unity  in  sculpture  and  painting.  In  every  good 
painting  or  group  of  statuary,  unity  is  carefully  observed. 
In  the  Laocoon  group,  pictured  on  page  163,  there  is  unity 
of  idea,  and  unity  of  grouping  and  pose  to  bring  out  the 
unity  of  idea.  The  central  figure  of  the  father  towers 
above  the  smaller  figures  of  his  sons,  which  are  balanced 
on  either  side.  The  dependence  of  the  sons  upon  the 
father  is  shown  in  the  way  in  which  the  bodies  are  turned 
toward  him.  The  serpents  bind  the  hopeless  trio  closer 
together  in  the  agony  of  their  struggle  and  emphasize  the 
unity  of  the  group. 

In  the  familiar  painting.  Da  Vinci's  The  Last  Supper, 
'unity  of  composition  is  plainly  illustrated.  On  each  side  of 
the  central  figure  are  six  disciples  arranged  in  two  groups 
of  three  each.  Goethe,  in  an  essay,  from  which  the  fol- 
lowing extract  is  taken,  brings  out  the  importance  of 
this  arrangement. 

Ex.  Next  to  Christ,  on  the  right  hand,  are  John,  Judas,  and  Peter. 
Peter,  the  farthest,  on  hearing  the  words  of  our  Lord,  rises  suddenly, 
in  conformity  with  his  vehement  character.  Judas,  with  terrified 
countenance,  leans  across  the  table,  tightly  clutching  the  purse  with 
the  right  hand,  while  mth  the  left  he  makes  an  involuntary  convulsive 
motion,  as  if  to  say,  "  What  may  this  mean  ?  What  is  to  happen?  " 
In  the  meanwhile  Peter  with  his  left  hand  has  seized  John  by  the 
right   shoulder,  who  bends   toward  him,  and  pointing   to    Christ, 


206  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

apparently  signifies  that  he  should  ask  who  is  the  traitor.  With  the 
handle  of  the  knife  which  he  holds  in  his  right  hand,  he  accidentally 
touches  the  side  of  Judas.  The  pose  of  the  latter,  who,  stooping 
forward  alarmed,  upsets  a  salt-cellar,  is  thus  successfully  managed. 
This  group  may  be  regarded  as  the  leading  one  in  the  picture ;  it  is 
certainly  the  most  perfect. 

While  on  the  right  hand  with  a  certain  degree  of  emotion  imme- 
diate revenge  seems  to  be  threate»ed,  horror  and  detestation  of  the 
treachery  manifest  themselves  on  the  left.  James  the  elder  draws 
back  in  terror,  and  with  arms  outstretched  gazes  transfixed,  his  head 
bowed,  like  one  who  imagines  that  he  already  sees  with  his  eyes 
those  fearful  things  which  he  hears  with  his  ears.  Behind  his 
shoulder,  Thomas  approaches  our  Lord,  and  raises  the  forefinger 
of  his  right  hand  to  his  forehead.  Philip,  the  third  of  this  group, 
completes  it  in  a  most  pleasing  manner.  Rising,  he  bends  forward 
toward  the  Master,  and  with  his  hands  upon  his  breast,  he  is  clearly 
saying,  "  It  is  not  I,  Lord ;  Thou  knowest  it !  Thou  knowest  my 
pure  heart ;  it  is  not  I !  " 

And  now  the  last  three  figures  on  this  side  afford  us  new  matter 
for  contemplation.  They  are  conversing  together  about  the  terrible 
news.  Matthew  turns  eagerly  to  his  two  companions  on  the  left, 
hastily  stretching  out  his  hands  toward  the  Master.  By  an  admirable 
contrivance  of  the  artist,  he  is  thus  made  to  connect  the  foregoing 
group  with  his  own.  Thaddeus  shows  the  utmost  surprise,  doubt, 
and  suspicion  ;  his  left  hand  rests  upon  the  table,  while  he  lifts  the 
right  as  though  he  were  about  to  strike  the  two  together,  a  common 
action  in  everyday  life,  as  when  at  some  unlooked-for  occurrence  a 
man  should  say,  "  Did  I  not  tell  you  so  ?  Did  I  not  always  suspect 
it  ?  "  Simon,  the  oldest  of  all,  sits  with  great  dignity  at  the  bottom 
of  the  table ;  we  thus  get  a  full  view  of  his  figure,  which  is  clad  in 
a  long  flowing  garb.  His  countenance  and  movement  show  him  to 
be  troubled  in  mind  and  full  of  thought ;  he  does  not,  however, 
display  any  marked  agitation. 

If  we  turn  our  eyes  at  once  to  the  opposite  end  of  the  table,  we 
shall  see  Bartholomew,  who  rests  on  his  right  foot,  crossing  the  left 
over  it,  and  bending  his  body  forward,  which  he  supports  with  both 
his  hands,  leaning  upon  the  table.     He  listens  as  if  to  hear  what 


ESSENTIAL    QUALITIES   OF   THE   THEME  207 

John  will  ask  of  the  Lord  ;  indeed,  that  disciple's  anxiety  is  shared 
in  by  the  whole  group.  James  the  younger,  standing  behind  Bar- 
tholomew, rests  his  left  hand  on  Peter's  shoulder,  in  the  same  way  as 
the  latter  leans  upon  that  of  St.  John.  On  James's  face  we  see  only  a 
placid  request  for  explanation ;  Peter  again  seems  to  threaten  revenge. 
And  as  Peter  behind  Judas,  so  James  the  younger  stretches  out 
his  hand  behind  Andrew,  who,  being  one  of  the  most  prominent 
figures,  expresses  by  half-lifted  arms  and  outspread  hands  the  fixed 
horror  with  which  he  is  seized.  This  expression  occurs  only  once  in 
the  picture,  although,  alas  !  it  is  too  often  repeated  in  works  com- 
posed with  less  genius  and  less  reflectiop. 

153.  Unity  in  the  theme.  Unity  in  the  theme  is  the 
quality  that  results  from  the  proper  development  of  one, 
and  only  one,  central  idea.  It  demands  that  the  material 
selected  be  intimately  connected  in  thought  with  this  main 
subject,  and  that  it  be  presented  from  one  point  of  view. 
Unity  of  the  theme  is  well  illustrated  in  the  extract  quoted 
in  Section  152. 

Suggestions 

1.  What  is  the  central  idea  ?  State  the  paragraph  topics 
and  show  that  they  preserve  the  unity. 

2.  What  is  the  point  of  view  ?  Show  that  it  does  not 
change. 

3.  What  beginning  is  used  ? 

154.  Hindrances  to  unity  in  the  theme.  The  most  common 
violations  of  the  principle  of  unity  are  due  almost  solely 
to  careless  and  indefinite  thinking.  The  student  should 
especially  guard  against  the  following  tendencies  :  (1) 
Digression  from  the  central  idea  of  the  theme  ;  (2)  Care- 
lessly shifting  the  point  of  view;  and  (3)  Beginning  in 
a  hazy,  uncertain  mamier. 


208  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

155.  Means  of  securing  unity  in  the  theme.  The  following 
directions  explain  the  most  important  means  of  securing 
unity  in  the  theme. 

1.  Keep  definitely/  in  mind  the  central  thought  or  idea. 
Decide  carefully  what  ideas  belong  in  the  theme.  Ideas 
which  are  unquestionably  £rue,  and  might  be  both  interest- 
ing and  appropriate  in  another  theme,  may  easily  be  out  of 
place  and  irrelevant.  If,  for  example,  the  student  is  pre- 
paring to  write  on  the  subject,  "My  Preparation  for  the 
High  School,"  he  might  naturally  enough  note  the  follow- 
ing facts  as  possible  material : 

(1)  Where  I  Lived. 

(2)  The  Old  School  House. 

(3)  Seventh  and  Eighth  Grades  of  the  Grammar 

School. 

(4)  Sickness. 

(5)  Ninth  Grade  of  the  Grammar  School. 

(6)  Subjects   Completed:   Arithmetic,  Geography, 

History,  Grammar,  Spelling. 

If  by  "Preparation  for  the  High  School"  the  writer 
means  the  work  done  to  enable  him  to  pass  the  entrance 
examinations,  he  will  see,  as  soon  as  he  applies  the  prin- 
ciples of  unity,  that  some  of  these  ideas  are  irrelevant. 
Numbers  one  and  two  are  entirely  out  of  place.  Number 
four  must  not  be  used  unless  it  vitally  affects  the  student's 
preparation,  and  may  perhaps  be  passed  over  very  lightly. 
The  writer  should  always  carefully  sift  his  material, 
especially  that  which  is  on  the  border  line  between  the 
relevant  and  the  irrelevant. 


ESSENTIAL    QUALITIES    OF   THE    THEME  209 

2.  Determine  upon  the  point  of  view  and  hold  firmly  to  it. 
The  point  oi  view  may  include :  (1)  The  actual  point  of 
observation,  or  the  figurative  observation,  (2)  The  tense  in 
which  the  theme  is  written,  (3)  The  purpose  of  the  writer, 
and  (4)  The  person  in  which  the  theme  is  written  — 
whether  first  or  third.  Effort  to  be  definite  in  all  these 
details  of  the  point  of  view  will  often  result  in  a  sur- 
prising improvement  in  the  student's  theme-writing. 

In  description  and  narration  especially  it  is  essential  to 
follow  this  direction.  Suppose  the  subject  of  a  theme  to 
be  "  The  Concert  on  the  River."  If  the  point  of  view  is 
not  determined  upon  at  once,  it  will  be  a  difficult  task 
even  to  outline  the  main  headings  for  the  theme ;  the 
beginning,  and  even  the  whole  theme,  will  very  probably 
be  hazy  and  uncertain.  The  following  outline  might 
easily  result : 

The  Concert  on  the  River. 

(1)  Description  of  Canoes  and  Orchestra  (from  a 

position  in  one  of  the  boats). 

(2)  The  Pleasures  of  Canoeing  and  Listening  to 

Music. 

(3)  How  the  Music  Sounded  from  the  Bluff  (from 

a  position  on  the  bluff,  of  course). 

(4)  How  the    Canoes,  Lights,  etc.,  Looked   from 

Above. 

(5)  The  Program  Played  by  the  Orchestra  (from  a 

position  in  one  of  the  boats). 

(6)  The  End  of  the  Concert  and  the  Departure  of 

the  Canoes. 


210  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

The  absurdity  of  shifting  the  point  of  view  in  this 
example  is  too  manifest  to  need  comment.  If,  at  the 
first,  it  had  been  decided  definitely  to  write  about  the  con- 
cert from  the  point  of  view  of  an  occupant  of  one  of  the 
canoes,  the  whole  theme  would  easily  have  taken  a  unified 
form.  The  vantage-point  of  the  bluff,  too,  would  have 
provided  another  accurate  point  of  view.  Again,  if  the 
writer  had  pictured  himself  moving  from  the  river  to  the 
bluff  and  back  again,  even  then  the  point  of  view  would 
have  been  definite.  The  gist  of  the  matter  is  that  the 
point  of  view,  whether  stationary  or  movable,  should  he  kept 
definitely  in  mind,  and  should  be  expressed  in  a  way  that 
will  make  it  perfectly  obvious  to  the  reader. 

In  exposition  the  importance  of  the  point  of  view  in 
thought  is  as  great.  Indeed,  it  often  requires  special 
care  and  the  use  of  constant  repetition  and  of  words  of 
reference  to  lead  the  reader  safely  to  the  end  of  the 
explanation  or  argument. 

3.  Secure  a  good  (i.e.  an  accurate)  beginning  (see  §146). 

4.  Avoid  digressions.  Study  the  effect  of  digressions 
in  the  exercise  on  page  125. 

EXERCISE 
I 

Give  the  central  idea  and  the  point  of  view  in  each  of 
the  following  selections : 

1.  "  The  Voyage,"  by  Irving. 

2.  "  Fido's  Little  Friend,"  by  Eugene  Field. 

3.  "  A  Child's  Dream  of  a  Star,"  by  Dickens. 


ESSENTIAL   qUALITIES'  OF   THE   THEME  211 


212  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

II 

Write  a  theme  of  about  four  hundred  words  concern- 
ing Guido  Reni's  Aurora,  pictured  on  the  preceding 
page,  working  from  an  outline,  and  aiming  to  secure  the 
greatest  possible  unity  of  thought  and  expression. 

Suggestions 

1.  What  is  the  central  idea  to  be  conveyed  and  the  impres- 
sion to  be  given?     What  details  emphasize  them? 

2.  What  is  the  point  of  view  ? 

3.  What  is  the  central  figure?     Why? 

4.  What  relation  does  each  of  the  important,  figures  bear 
to  the  central  one  ? 

5.  Does  the  glimpse  of  the  landscape  seen  at  the  right  of 
the  picture  mar  the  unity?     Why,  or  why  not? 

Ill 

Write  a  theme  on  one  of  the  following  subjects,  working 
from  an  outline,  and  following  the  directions  for  securing 
unity: 

1.  The  Legend  of  William  Tell. 

2.  The  Story  of  Chatterton's  Life. 

3.  The  School  Days  of  a  Roman  Boy. 

II.     COHERENCE 

156.  Coherence  in  the  theme.  Coherence  in  the  theme 
demands  that  the  material  be  logically  and  naturally 
arranged  —  that  the  sequence  of  ideas  be  perfectly  clear. 
In  a  perfectly  coherent  theme  the  relation  of  the  topics  is 
so  unmistakably  obvious  that  even  the  careless  reader 
cannot  fail  to  get  the  writer's  meaning. 


ESSENTIAL    QUALITIES    OF   THE    THEME  213 

157.  Hindrances  to  coherence.  Lack  of  coherence  in  the 
theme  most  often  arises  from  one  of  two  causes:  (1) 
Lack  of  definiteness  in  the  logical  arrangement;  or  (2) 
Lack  of  connecting  words  and  paragraphs  to  show  the 
order  and  the  relation  of  the  parts. 

158.  Means  of  securing  coherence  in  the  theme.  There 
are  two  important  means  of  securing  coherence  in  the 
theme. 

1.  Seek  definitely/  a  natural  and  logical  order  of  devel- 
opment. The  order  of  development,  of  course,  varies  with 
the  subject,  the  method  of  treatment,  and  the  individu- 
ality of  the  writer.  The  student  is  the  creator  of  his  own 
work,  and  should  therefore  be  the  chooser  of  his  own 
order.  Any  one  of  the  following  three  arrangements  may 
often  be  used. 

(1)  The  order  may  be  chronological,  as  in  a  narra- 
tion. In  writing  the  life  of  Washington  Irving, 
for  instance,  the  order  would  be :  (1)  Boyhood,  (2) 
Early  education,  (3)  Manhood,  (4)  Later  life,  etc. 

(2)  In  description,  the  order  may  be  :  (a)  from  cen- 
tral figure  to  details,  or  vice  versa ;  (h)  from  things 
that  are  near  at  hand  to  those  that  are  remote,  or 
vice  versa;  {c)  in  accordance  with  some  scheme 
growing  out  of  the  scene, — as  in  Victor  Hugo's 
comparison  of  the  field  of  Waterloo  to  a  capital  A, 
with  the  three  generals  and  their  forces  at  the  apex 
and  the  two  bases. 

(3)  In  argument  the  order  may  be :  (a)  from  known 
to  unknown  facts  and  principles ;  (h)  from  accepted 
facts  and  principles  to  those  that  are  questioned. 


214  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

2.  Use  connecting  tvords  a7id  sentences^  and  transitional 
paragraphs,  to  make  the  logical  order  evideiit. 

Section  163  is  an  example  of  a  transitional  paragraph, 
since  it  makes  clear  the  logical  connection  between  Chap- 
ter XI  and  the  preceding  chapters.  The  first  sentence  in 
Section  151  illustrates  the  use  of  connecting  phrases  in 
transitional  sentences  —  the  phrase,  "  of  these  essential 
qualities,"  connecting  Section  150  with  Section  151. 

EXERCISE 

I 

Indicate  the  order  of  arrangement  used  in  each  of  the 
following  selections,  point  out  connecting  words  and  sen- 
tences which  promote  coherence,  and  suggest  changes  if 
such  are  needed : 

Ex.  1.  The  Icebergs 

The  bergs  had  wholly  lost  their  chilly  aspect,  and,  glittering  in 
the  blaze  of  the  brilliant  heavens,  seemed,  in  the  distance,  like 
masses  of  burnished  metal  or  solid  flame.  Near  at  hand  there  were 
huge  blocks  of  Parian  marble,  inlaid  with  mammoth  gems  of  pearl 
and  opal. 

One  in  particular  exhibited  the  perfection  of  the  grand.  Its 
form  was  not  unlike  that  of  the  Coliseum,  and  it  lay  so  far  away 
that  half  its  weight  was  buried  beneath  the  line  of  blood-red  waters. 
The  sun,  slowly  rolling  along  the  horizon,  passed  behind  it,  and  it 
seemed  as  if  the  old  Roman  ruin  had  taken  fire.  Nothing,  indeed, 
but  the  pencil  of  the  artist  could  depict  the  wonderful  richness 
of  this  sparkling  fragment  of  nature. 

In  the  shadows  of  the  bergs  the  water  was  a  rich  green,  and 
nothing  could  be  more  soft  and  tender  than  the  gradations  of  color 
made  by  the  sea  shoaling  on  the  sloping  tongue  of  a  berg  close  beside 
us.     The  tint  increased  in  intensity  where  the  ice  overhung  the 


ESSENTIAL    QUALITIES    OF   THE    THEME  215 

water,  and  a  deep  cavern  near  by  exhibited  the  solid  color  of  the 
malachite  mingled  with  the  transparency  of  the  emerald ;  while,  in 
strange  contrast,  abroad  stifak  of  cobalt  blue  ran  diagonally  through 

it«  b^^y-  Isaac  I.  Hayks. 

Ex.  2.  Telling  the  Good  News 

In  yonder  wooden  steeple,  which  crowns  the  summit  of  that  red 
l)rick  state  house,  stands  an  old  man  with  snow-white  hair  and  sun- 
burnt face.  He  is  clad  in  humble  attire,  yet  his  eye  gleams,  as  it  is 
fixed  on  the  ponderous  outline  of  the  bell  suspended  in  the  steeple 
there.  By  his  side,  gazing  into  his  sunburnt  face  in  wonder,  stands 
a  flaxen-haired  boy  with  laughing  eyes  of  summer  blue.  The  old 
man  ponders  for  a  moment  upon  the  strange  words  written  upon  the 
bell,  then  gathering  the  boy  in  his  arms,  he  speaks :  "  Look  here,  my 
child.  Will  you  do  this  old  man  a  kindness  ?  Then  hasten  down  the 
stairs,  and  wait  in  the  hall  below  till  a  man  gives  you  a  message  for 
me ;  when  he  gives  you  that  word,  run  out  into  the  street  and  shout 
it  up  to  me.  Do  you  mind?"  The  boy  sprang  from  the  old  man's 
arms  and  threaded  his  way  down  the  dark  stairs. 

Many  minutes  passed.  The  old  bell-keeper  was  alone.  "Ah," 
groaned  the  old  man,  "  he  has  forgotten  me."  As  the  word  was 
upon  his  lips  a  merry,  ringing  laugh  broke  on  his  ear.  And  there, 
among  the  crowd  on  the  pavement,  stood  the  blue-eyed  boy,  clapping 
his  tiny  hands  while  the  breeze  blew  his  flaxen  hair  all  about  his 
face,  and,  swelling  his  little  chest,  he  raised  himself  on  tiptoe  and 
shouted  the  single  word  "  Ring  !  " 

Do  you  see  that  old  man's  eye  fire  ?  Do  you  see  that  arm  so 
suddenly  bared  to  the  shoulder?  Do  you  see  that  withered  hand 
grasping  the  iron  tongue  of  the  bell  ?  That  old  man  is  young  again. 
His  veins  are  filling  with  a  new  life.  Backward  and  forward,  with 
sturdy  strokes  he  swings  the  tongue.  The  bell  peals  out;  the 
crowds  in  the  street  hear  it,  and  burst  forth  in  one  long  shout.  Old 
Delaware  hears  it,  and  gives  it  back  on  the  cheers  of  her  thousand 
sailors.  The  city  hears  it,  and  starts  up,  from  desk  and  workshop, 
as  if  an  earthquake  had  spoken. 

George  Lippard's  "  Washington  and  his  Generals." 


216  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Ex.  3.  The  Nature  op  Real  Study 

Curiosity  is  a  passion  very  favorable  to  the  love  of  study,  and  a 
passion  very  susceptible  of  increase  by  cultivation.  Sound  travels  so 
many  feet  in  a  second,  and  light  travels  so  many  feet  in  a  second. 
Nothing  more  probable ;  but  you  do  not  care  how  light  and  sound 
travel.  Yery  likely ;  but  make  yourself  care  ;  get  up,  shake  yourself 
well,  pretend  to  care,  make  believQ^to  care,  and  very  soon  you  will  care, 
and  care  so  much  that  you  will  sit  for  hours  thinking  about  light 
and  sound,  and  be  extremely  angry  with  any  one  who  interrupts  you 
in  your  pursuits ;  and  tolerate  no  other  conversation  but  about  light 
and  sound;  and  catch  yourself  plaguing  everybody  to  death  who 
approaches  you,  with  the  discussion  of  these  subjects. 

I  am  sure  that  a  man  ought  to  read  as  he  would  grasp  a  nettle : 
do  it  lightly,  and  you  get  molested ;  grasp  it  with  all  your  strength, 
and  you  feel  none  of  its  asperities.  There  is  nothing  so  horrible  as 
languid  study,  when  you  sit  looking  at  the  clock,  wishing  the  time 
was  over,  or  that  somebody  would  call  on  you  and  put  you  out  of 
your  misery.  The  only  way  to  read  with  any  efficacy  is  to  read  so 
heartily  that  dinner-time  comes  two  hours  before  you  expected  it. 

To  sit  with  your  Livy  before  you,  and  hear  the  geese  cackling 
that  saved  the  Capitol ;  and  to  see  with  your  own  eyes  the  Cartha- 
ginian sutlers  gathering  up  the  rings  of  the  Roman  knights  after  the 
battle  of  Cannae,  and  heaping  them  into  bushels  ;  and  to  be  so 
intimately  present  at  the  actions  you  are  reading  of  that  when  any- 
body knocks  at  the  door  it  will  take  you  two  or  three  seconds  to 
determine  whether  you  are  in  your  own  study,  or  in  the  plains  of 
Lombardy,  looking  at  Hannibal's  weather-beaten  face,  and  admiring 
the  splendor  of  his  single  eye,  —  this  is  the  only  kind  of  study  that  is 
not  tiresome  ;  and  almost  the  only  kind  which  is  not  useless  ;  this  is 
the  knowledge  which  gets  into  the  system,  and  which  a  man  carries 
about  and  uses  like  his  limbs,  without  perceiving  that  it  is  extraneous, 
weighty,  or  inconvenient.  Sydney  Smith. 


ESSENTIAL   QUALITIES   OF   THE   THEME  217 

II 

Show  how  coherence  is  made  evident  in  the  following 
selections  : 

1.  Jim's  Adventure  with  Israel  Hands,  on  pages  168-169. 

2.  Hawthorne's  "  The  Great  Stone  Face." 

3.  Irving's  "  Westminster  Abbey." 

Ill 

Rewrite  the  following  description,  omitting  and  add- 
ing  details    to    secure    the    greatest   possible    unity  and 

coherence : 

The  Setting  Sux 

It  was  half-past  seven  of  a  summer  evening,  and  the  sun  was 
nearing  the  horizon.  High  up  in  the  zenith  two  little  black  clouds 
drifted  rapidly  toward  the  west.  Bright  golden  rays  shot  in  all 
directions  from  the  glowing  ball  of  fire  just  touching  the  ocean. 
Over  in  the  east  the  purple  thunder-clouds  were  lighted  up  by  a 
strange  red  glow,  resembling  fire.  Around  the  sun  and  across  its 
face  were  layers  of  cloud  of  as  many  different  colors  as  a  rainbow. 

IV 
Revise  the  theme  written  in  Exercise  III  on  page  212 
to  secure  as  great  coherence  as  possible. 

III.     EMPHASIS 

159.  Emphasis  in  the  theme.  Emphasis  in  the  theme 
demands  that  the  important  topics  be  given  their  proper 
proportion,  and  that,  whenever  possible,  they  be  placed  so 
as  to  attract  attention.  The  most  important  positions  in 
the  theme  are  the  beginning  and  the  end.  In  his  efforts 
to  arrange  his  material  with  regard  to  proportion,  the 
student  should  not  forget  that  he  is  the  creator  of  his 


218  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

own  work  and  that  he  is  free,  therefore,  to  decide  upon 
what  is  important  and  what  is  not,  what  idea  to  develop 
most  fully  and  what  to  reserve  for  an  emphatic  ending. 

160.  Chief  hindrances  to  emphasis  in  the  theme.  The  student 
must  guard  against  two  faults :  (1)  Lack  of  proportion, 
and  (2)  A  weak  and  ineffective  beginning  or  ending. 

161.  Chief  means  of  securing  emphasis.  Three  means  of 
securing  emphasis  are  especially  to  be  observed. 

1.  Weigh  carefully  the  relative  values  of  ideas  and  give 
them  space  according  to  their  importance.  The  writer 
should  consider  not  only  the  intrinsic  worth  of  a  given 
idea,  but  also  its  relative  value  as  compared  with  the 
other  ideas  in  the  theme.  An  idea  which  is  important 
enough  to  be  given  a  whole  paragraph  in  a  theme  of  five 
hundred  words  may  be  inappropriate  and  out  of  propor- 
tion if  written  as  a  separate  paragraph  in  a  theme  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty  words. 

2.  Arrange  the  most  important  ideas  so  as  to  occupy  impor- 
tant places^  —  the  beginning  or  the  ending.  Although  these 
two  parts  of  the  theme  are  short  as  compared  with  the  main 
body  which  contains  the  development,  yet  they  are  of  great 
importance ;  for  they  make  the  first  and  last  impressions 
which  naturally  remain  the  longest  in  the  reader's  mind. 

3.  Employ  the  climax.  This  subject  of  the  climax  is 
more  fully  treated  in  Section  317,  which  may  well  be 
studied  at  this  point.  To  introduce  a  climax  for  the  sake 
of  concealing  the  writer's  lack  of  ideas  when  there  is  no 
real  need  for  such  emphasis  is  a  cheap  device  of  the  sen- 
sational writer.  On  the  other  hand,  an  appropriate  climax 
is  always  effective. 


ESSENTIAL    (QUALITIES    OF   THE    THEME  219 

EXERCISE 
I 
Show  how  proportion  and  climax  are  used  in  each  of 
the  following  selections : 

1.  The  Death  of  Colonel  Neircome  in  the  last  chapter  of  Thack- 
eray's "The  Newcomes." 

2.  The  Combat  between  Richard  I  and  Saladin  in  Scott's  "  Talis- 
man." 

3.  Sydney  Carton's  Sacrifice,  on  pages  172-174. 

II 

Write  a  theme  on  one  of  the  following  subjects,  being 
especially  careful  to  observe  a  just  proportion,  and  to  have 
a  good  beginning  and  ending : 

1.  The  Defense  of  Socrates  before  his  Judges. 

2.  The  Heroism  of  Father  Damien. 

3.  A  Successful  Undertaking. 

4.  A  Narrow  Escape. 

5.  An  Unknown  Heroine. 

Ill 

Bring  to  class  from  your  own  reading  one  description, 
one  narration,  and  one  exposition  (see  §  250)  which  you 
think  employ  all  the  means  stated  for  securing  emphasis. 
Be  prepared  to  explain  how  it  is  done. 

SUMMARY 

162.  The  essential  qualities  of  the  theme  are:  (1) 
Unity,  which  has  to  do  with  the  choice  of  material ; 
(2)  Coherence,  which  has  to  do  with  arrangement  with  a 
view  to  clearness;  (3)  Emphasis,  which  has  to  do  with 
arrangement  with  a  view  to  proportion.  Mt 


220  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

The  fundamental  character  of  unity  is  illustrated  by 
its  prominence  in  nature  and  art.  Unity  in  the  theme  is 
the  quality  which  results  from  the  proper  development  of 
one,  and  only  one,  central  idea.  The  chief  hindrances  to 
unity  in  the  theme  are:  digressions,  a  shifting  of  the  point 
of  view,  and  hazy,  uncertain  beginning.  The  important 
means  of  securing  unity  are  to  keep  definitely  in  mind  the 
central  thought ;  to  determine  upon  the  point  of  view, 
and  to  hold  firmly  to  it ;  to  secure  a  good  {i.e.  an  accurate) 
beginning ;  and  to  avoid  digressions. 

Coherence  in  the  theme  demands  that  the  material  be 
logically  and  naturally  arranged  —  that  the  sequence  of 
ideas  be  perfectly  clear.  The  chief  hindrances  to  cohe- 
rence in  the  theme  are  :  a  lack  of  definiteness  in  the  logical 
arrangement,  and  a  lack  of  connecting  words  and  para- 
graphs to  show  the  order  and  the  relation  of  the  parts. 
The  chief  means  of  securing  coherence  in  the  theme  are 
to  seek  definitely  a  natural  and  logical  order  of  develop- 
ment, and  to  use  connecting  words  and  sentences,  and 
transitional  paragraphs  to  make  the  meaning  clear.  The 
order  of  development  may  be  chronological,  as  in  narra- 
tion. It  may  proceed,  as  in  description,  from  a  central 
figure  to  details,  or  vice  versa ;  from  things  near  at  hand 
to  those  that  are  remote,  or  vice  versa;  or  in  accordance 
with  some  scheme  growing  out  of  the  scene.  In  argu- 
ment the  order  may  be  from  known  to  unknown  facts  and 
principles,  or  from  accepted  facts  and  principles  to  those 
that  are  yet  to  be  proved. 

Emphasis  in  the  theme  demands  that  the  important 
topics  be  given  their  proper  proportion,  and  that,  whenever 
^ssible,  they  be  placed  so  as  to  attract  attention.     The 


ESSENTIAL    QUALITIES   OF   THE    THEME  221 

chief  hindrances  to  emphasis  in  the  theme  are  :  lack  of  pro- 
portion, a  weak  beginning,  and  a  weak  ending.  The 
chief  means  of  securing  emphasis  in  the  theme  are  to 
weigh  carefully  the  relative  values  of  ideas  and  give  them 
space  according  to  their  importance  ;  to  arrange  important 
ideas  or  points  so  as  to  occupy  important  places,  the  begin- 
ning and  the  ending  ;  and  to  employ  a  climax  whenever  it 
is  natural  and  effective. 


Part  III 

CHAPTER   XI 

THE  PARAGRAPH 

Language  is  the  picture  and  counterpart  of  thought. 

Mark  Hopkins. 

I.     INTRODUCTION 

163.  Value  of  detailed  study  of  the  paragraph.  The  student 
has  doubtless  proved,  to  some  degree  at  least,  the  value 
of  giving  special  attention  to  the  important  principles 
of  the  theme  as  a  whole.  The  paragraph  is  a  sort  of 
composition  on  a  small  scale,  and  it  may  naturally  be 
expected  that  a  detailed  study  of  paragraph  structure 
will  supplement  the  study  of  the  theme,  in  addition  to 
giving  the  student  a  comprehensive  grasp  of  the  problems 
peculiar  to  the  paragraph  itself.  Many  writers,  in  fact, 
insist  that  a  constant  practice  in  writing  paragraphs  is  the 
surest  and  most  economical  way  of  acquiring  the  ability 
to  write  excellent  themes. 

164.  Definition  of  the  paragraph.  The  paragraph  is  a  group 
of  related  sentences  which  develop  a  single  topic.  Since,  as 
has  been  said,  it  is  a  composition  on  a  small  scale,  whatever 
principles  apply  to  the  theme  will  usually  apply  also  to  the 
paragraph.  This  fact  will  be  seen  in  a  study  of  essential 
qualities,  which  in  both  cases  are  unity,  coherence,  an(} 
emphasis. 

222 


THE  PARAGRAPH  223 

Clear  and  logical  thought  on  any  subject  tends  to 
resolve  itself  into  groups  of  related  ideas,  which  when 
expressed  in  sentences  arrange  themselves  in  paragraphs. 
The  chief  purpose  of  the  paragraph  is  to  make  the  thoughts 
expressed  in  the  theme  stand  out  with  definiteness  in  their 
logical  relation.  Although  the  paragraph  is  far  from  being 
primarily  a  device  for  pleasing  the  reader's  eye  and  resting 
his  brain,  yet  it  may  also  do  both  of  these  things. 

165.  Kinds  of  paragraphs.  The  paragraph  may  be  studied 
as  a  complete  composition  in  miniature,  or  as  one  of 
several  paragraphs  tliat  make  up  a  long  theme.  In  either 
case  it  is  a  unit  of  writing. 

A  large  class  of  subjects,  such  as  simple  descriptions, 
brief  narratives,  and  condensed  expositions,  admit  of  com- 
plete treatment  in  a  single  paragraph.  A  single  para- 
graph which  gives  an  adequate  treatment  of  any  subject, 
or  phase  of  a  subject,  may  be  called  an  isolated  paragraph. 
Related  paragraphs  are  the  parts  into  which  a  theme  may 
naturally  be  divided. 

166.  Length  of  paragraphs.  The  length  of  the  para- 
graph is  determined  largely  by  two  things  :  the  number  of 
topics  and  the  length  of  the  theme. 

(jenerally,  a  single  important  topic  requires  a  paragraph 
to  itself,  and  the  length  of  such  a  paragraph  depends  on 
the  importance  of  the  topic.  When  the  subject  is  a  com- 
plex one,  the  group  of  related  ideas  to  be  combined  in  one 
paragraph  may  be  large ;  in  this  case  care  must  be  taken 
to  keep  the  paragraph  from  becoming  involved. 

Although  the  length  of  the  paragraphs  depends  chiefly 
upon  the  topics,  the  writer  must  take  into  accomit  also 


224  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

the  length  of  the  theme.  For  instance,  in  a  sketch  of  the 
life  of  Washington  Irving,  the  topics  discussed  may  be: 
(1)  Boyhood,  (2)  Education,  (3)  Early  work,  (4)  Mature  man- 
hood. If  the  theme  is  but  one  hundred  and  fifty  words  in 
length,  all  the  material  may  properly  be  put  into  one  para- 
graph. If,  however,  the  theme  is  eight  hundred  words 
long,  four  paragraphs  of  varying  length  will  be  necessary. 
No  hard  and  fast  rule  can  be  laid  down  for  the  length 
of  the  paragraph.  The  student  should  again  remember 
that  he  is  the  creator  of  his  own  written  work  and  that 
he  must  decide  the  length  of  his  paragraphs  in  accordance 
with  his  own  development  of  the  thought.  Well-con- 
structed long  paragraphs  tend  to  give  weight  and  dignity, 
while  short  ones  show  rapidity  and  vivacity.  Short  para- 
graphs are  common  in  rapid  narration.  In  conversation, 
a  separate  paragraph  is  generally  used  to  indicate  each 
change  of  speaker. 

167.  Essentials  of  the  paragraph.  Like  the  theme,  every 
paragraph  —  whether  isolated  or  related  —  should  possess 
these  three  qualities :  (1 )  Unity,  which  has  to  do  with  the 
choice  of  material ;  (2)  Coherence,  which  has  to  do  with 
arrangement  with  a  view  to  clearness ;  and  (3)  Emphasis, 
which  has  to  do  with  arrangement  with  a  view  to  pro- 
portion. 

II.     UNITY 

168.  Unity  in  the  paragraph.  Unity  in  the  paragraph 
requires  that  all  the  sentences  composing  the  paragraph 
shall  bear  directly  on  the  central  thought  of  that  para- 
graph.    If  the  group  of  sentences  contains  one  sentence 


THE  PARAGRAPH  225 

which  does  not  contribute  its  share  of  meaning  toward  the 
object  for  which  the  group  was  written,  unity  is  violated 
and  the  group  is  in  no  true  sense  a  paragraph. 

169.  Hindrances  to  unity  in  the  paragraph.  The  most  impor- 
tant hindrances  to  unity  in  the  paragraph  are :  (1)  Digres- 
sions ;  (2)  Shifting  the  point  of  view ;  (3)  Making  a  hazy, 
uncertain  beginning.  * 

170.  Means  of  securing  unity  in  the  paragraph.  The  chief 
means  of  securing  unity  in  the  paragraph  are  the  same  as 
tliose  given  in  the  discussion  of  the  theme:  (1)  Keeping 
definitely  in  mind  the  central  thought  or  idea,  which  is 
expressed  in  the  topic-sentence  (see  §  178);  (2)  Deter- 
mining upon  the  point  of  view  and  holding  firmly  to  it ; 
(3)  Securing  an  accumte  beginning;  and  (4)  Avoiding 
digressions. 

Study  each  of  the  following  paragraphs  to  find  the  central 
thought  and  the  point  of  view,  as  well  as  to  note  the 
nature  and  value  of  each  l)eginning. 

Ex.  1.     [Central  idea.]     Personal  appearance  of  Francis  Drake. 

Who  is  that  short,  sturdy,  plainly  dressed  man  who  stands 
with  legs  a  little  apart  and  hands  behind  his  back,  looking  up  witli 
keen  gray  eyes  into  the  face  of  each  speaker?  His  cap  is  in  his 
hands,  so  you  can  see  the  bullet  head  of  crisp  brown  hair  and  the 
wrinkled  forehead,  as  well  as  the  high  cheek-bones,  the  short, 
scjuare  face,  the  broad  temples,  the  thick  lips  which  are  yet  as 
firm  as  granite.  A  coarse  plebeian  stamp  of  man ;  yet  the  whole 
figure  and  attitude  are  that  of  boundless  determination,  self-posses- 
sion, energy;  and  when  at  last  he  speaks  a  few  blunt  words,  all 
eyes  are  turned  respectfully  upon  him,  —  for  his  name  is  Francis 

^^*^®*  Charles  Kingsley. 


226  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Ex.  2.     [Central  idea.]     Danger  of  false  consistency. 

A  foolish  consistency  is  the  hobgoblin  of  little  minds,  adored 
by  little  statesmen  and  philosophers  and  divines.  With  consis- 
tency a  great  soul  has  siniply  nothing  to  do.  He  may  as  well 
concern  himself  with  the  shadow  on  the  wall.  Speak  what  you 
think  now  in  hard  words,  and  to-morrow  speak  what  to-morrow 
thinks  in  hard  words  again,  though  it  contradicts  everything  you 
said  to-day.  — "  Ah,  so  you  shall  be  sure  to  be  misunderstood." 
—  "  Is  it  so  bad,  then,  to  be  misunderstood  ? "  Pythagoras  was 
misunderstood,  and  Socrates,  and  Jesus,  and  Luther,  and  Coper- 
nicus, and  Galileo,  and  Newton,  and  every  pure  and  wise  spirit 
that  ever  took  flesh.     To  be  Great  is  to  be  misunderstood. 

Emerson's  '' ^If-Reliance." 

EXERCISE 

I 

Bring  to  class  from  your  reading  three  paragraphs  in 
which  the  principle  of  unity  is  illustrated.  Be  prepared 
to  show  that  they  keep  strictly  to  the  central  thought 
and  the  point  of  view,  furnish  a  good  beginning,  and 
avoid  digressions. 

II 

Criticise  the  following  paragraphs,  changing  them 
wherever  it  is  necessary  to  make  them  comply  with  the 
requirements  of  unity : 

1.  Caleb  and  his  daughter  were  at  work  together  in  their  usual 
working-room,  which  served  them  for  their  ordinary  living-room  as 
well,  and  a  strange  place  it  was.  There  were  houses  in  it,  finished 
and  unfinished,  for  Dolls  of  all  stations  in  life  —  suburban  tenements 
for  Dolls  of  moderate  means;  kitchens  and  single  apartments  for 
Dolls  of  the  lower  classes ;  Town  residences  for  Dolls  of  high  estate. 
There  were  various  other  samples  of  his  handicraft,  beside  Dolls,  in 
Caleb  Plummer's  room.     There  were   Noah's   Arks,  in  which  the 


THE  PARAGRAPH  227 

Birds  and  Beasts  were  an  uncommonly  tight  fit,  I  assure  you ;  though 
they  could  be  crammed  in,  anyhow,  at  the  roof,  and  rattled  and 
shaken  into  the  smallest  compass.  There  were  scores  of  melancholy 
little  carts  which,  when  the  wheels  went  routid,  j)erformed  most  dole- 
ful music ;  many  small  fiddles,  drums,  and  other  instruments  of 
torture ;  no  end  of  cannon,  shields,  swords,  spears,  and  guns.  There 
were  little  tumblers  in  red  breeches,  incessantly  swarming  up  high 
obstacles  of  red  tape,  and  coming  down,  head  first,  on  the  other  side ; 
and  there  were  innumerable  old  gentlemen  of  respectable,  not  to  say 
venerable  appearance,  insanely  flying  over  horizontal  pegs,  inserted  for 
the  purpose  in  their  own  street  doors.  There  were  beasts  of  all  sorts  ; 
horses,  in  particular,  of  every  breed,  from  the  spotted  barrel  on  four 
legs,  with  a  small  tippet  for  a  mane,  to  the  thoroughbred  rocker  on 
his  highest  meUle.  Dickens'  "  The  Cricket  on  the  Hearth. " 

2.  There  are  some  persons  who  are  so  fortunate  as  to  be  unable 
to  tell  when  they  formed  the  habit  of  reading ;  who  find  it  a  con- 
stant and  ever-increasing  advantage  and  pleasure,  their  whole  lives 
long;  and  who  will  not  lay  it  down  so  long  as  they  live.  There 
are  women  and  men  in  the  w(^rld  whose  youth  and  whose  old  age 
are  so  bound  up  in  the  reading  hal)it  that,  if  questioned  as  to  its 
first  inception  and  probable  end,  they  could  only  reply,  like  Dimple- 
chin  and  Grizzled-face,  in  Mr.  Stedman's  pretty  poem  of  Toufours 
Amour:  "Ask  some  younger  lass  than  I";  "Ask  some  older  sage 
than  I."  Happy  are  those  whose  early  surroundings  thus  permit 
them  to  form  the  reading  habit  unconsciously  ;  whose  parents  and 
friends  surround  them  with  good  books  and  periodicals ;  and  whose 
time  is  so  apportioned  in  childhood  and  youth  as  to  permit  them 
to  give  a  fair  share  of  it  to  reading,  as  well  as  to  study  in  school, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  physical  labor  on  the  other.  It  is  plain  that 
a  great  duty  and  responsibility  thus  rest  upon  parents,  and  guar- 
dians, and  teachers  of  the  young,  at  the  very  outset.  It  is  theirs 
to  furnish  the  books,  and  to  stimulate  and  suggest,  in  every  wise 
way,  the  best  methods  of  reading. 

Chables  F.  Richardson's  "  The  Reading  Habit. " 


228  COMPOSITION  AND  KUETORIG 

III 
Write  a  paragraph  on  each  of  the  following  general 
topics,  observing  carefully  the  means  of  securing  unity 
discussed  in  Section  170: 

1.  One  Danger  of  Excessive  Novel-Reading. 

2.  The  Man  in  the  Iron  Mask. 

3.  America's  National  Song. 

4.  Our  Debt  to  the  Pilgrim  Fathers. 

5.  Some  Advantages  of  Manual  Training. 

IV 
Paragraph  the  following  bit  of  dialogue  from   Black- 
more's  "  Lorna  Doone  "  : 

Therefore  I  sat  upright,  with  my  little  trident  still  in  one  hand,  and 
was  much  afraid  to  speak  to  her,  being  conscious  of  my  country 
brogue,  lest  she  should  cease  to  like  me.  But  she  clapped  her 
hands,  and  made  a  trifling  dance  around  my  back,  and  came  to 
me  on  the  other  side,  as  if  I  were  a  great  plaything.  "  What  is 
your  name  ? "  she  said,  as  if  she  had  every  right  to  ask  me  ;  "  and 
how  did  you  come  here,  and  what  are  these  wet  things  in  this  great 
bag  ?  "  "  You  had  better  let  them  alone,"  I  said  ;  "  they  are  loaches 
for  my  mother.  But  I  will  give  you  some,  if  you  like."  "  Dear  me, 
how  much  you  think  of  them  !  Why,  they  are  only  fish.  But  your 
feet  are  bleeding  !  Oh,  I  must  tie  them  up  for  you.  And  no  shoes 
or  stockings!  Is  your  mother  very  poor,  poor  boy?"  "No,"  I 
said,  being  vexed  at  this ;  "  we  are  rich  enough  to  buy  all  this  great 
meadow,  if  we  choose ;  and  here  my  shoes  and  stockings  are."  "  Why, 
they  are  quite  as  wet  as  your  feet ;  and  I  cannot  bear  to  see  your 
feet.  Oh,  please  to  let  me  manage  them  ;  I  will  do  it  very  softly." 
"  Oh,  I  don't  think  much  of  that,"  I  replied  ;  "  I  shall  put  some 
goose-grease  to  them.  But  how  you  are  looking  at  me !  I  never 
saw  any  one  like  you  before.  My  name  is  John  Ridd.  What  is 
your  name  ? "  "  Lorna  Doone,"  she  answered  in  a  low  voice,  as  if 
afraid  of  it,  and  hanging  her  head  so  that  I  could  see  only  her  fore- 
head and  eyelashes  ;  "  if  you  please,  my  name  is  Lorna  Doone  ;  and 
I  thought  you  must  have  known  it." 


THE  PARAGRAPH  229 

III.     COHERENCE 

171.  Coherence  in  the  paragraph.  Coherence  in  the  para- 
graph requires  that  the  material  shall  be  so  arranged  as 
to  make  the  meaning  unmistakably  clear.  It  differs  from 
coherence  in  the  theme  only  in  having  to  do  with  sen- 
tences instead  of  paragraphs. 

172.  Hindrances  to  coherence  in  the  paragraph.  These  are 
the  same  as  the  hindrances  to  coherence  in  the  theme: 

(1)  Lack  of  definiteness  in  the  logical  arrangement,  and 

(2)  Lack  of  connecting  words  and  phrases  to  show  the 
relation  of  the  parts. 

173.  Means  of  securing  coherence  in  the  paragraph. 

1.  Seek  definitely  a  yiatural  arid  logical  order  of  develop- 
ment of  the  topic-sentence.  For  a  full  treatment  of  the 
most  common  means  of  development,  see  Chapter  XII. 

2.  Wherever  they  are  needed  to  make  the  meaning  clear, 
use  connecting  words  and  phrases.  Study  one  of  your 
own  themes  and  you  will  see  that  words  like  so,  there- 
fore, hence,  notwithstanding,  in  the  former  case,  and  many 
similar  expressions  are  used,  like  sign-boards,  to  point  the 
way  to  the  connecting  road.  Where  the  thought  is  emi- 
nently simple,  you  should  of  course  avoid  using  too  many 
words  of  reference. 

Study  the  following  paragraphs  to  find  the  order  of 
development,  and  the  connecting  words  and  phrases. 

Ex.  1.  He  had  plenty  to  do  through  the  next  hour.  The  por- 
ridge, sweetened  with  some  dry  brown  sugar  from  an  old  store 
which  he  had  refrained  from  using  for  himself,  stopped  the  cries  of 
the  little  one,  and  made  her  lift  her  blue  eyes  with  a  wide,  quiet 


230  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

gaze  at  Silas,  as  he  put  the  spoon  into  her  mouth.  Presently  she 
slipped  from  his  knee  and  began  to  toddle  about,  but  with  a  pretty 
stagger  that  made  Silas  jump  up  and  follow  her,  lest  she  should 
fall  against  anything  that  would  hurt  her.  But  she  only  fell  in  a 
sitting  posture  on  the  ground,  and  began  to  pull  at  her  boots,  look- 
ing up  at  him  with  a  crying  face  as  if  the  boots  hurt  her.  He  took 
her  on  his  knee  again,  but  it  was  some  time  before  it  occurred  to 
Silas'  dull  'bachelor  mind  that  the  wet  boots  were  the  grievance, 
pressing  on  her  warm  ankles.  He  got  them  off  with  difficulty,  and 
baby  was  at  once  happily  occupied  with  the  primary  mystery  of  her 
own  toes,  inviting  Silas,  with  much  chuckling,  to  consider  the 
mystery,  too.  But  the  wet  boots  had  at  last  suggested  to  Silas 
that  the  child  had  been  walking  on  the  snow,  and  this  roused  him 
from  his  entire  oblivion  of  any  ordinary  means  by  which  it  could 
have  entered  or  been  brought  into  his  house.  Under  the  promptings 
of  this  new  idea,  and  without  waiting  to  form  conjectures,  he  raised 
the  child  in  his  arms  and  went  to  the  door.  As  soon  as  he  had 
opened  it  there  was  the  cry  of  "  mammy  "  again,  which  Silas  had 
not  heard  since  the  child's  first  hungry  waking.  Bending  forward, 
he  could  just  discern  the  marks  made  by  the  little  feet  on  the  virgin 
snow,  and  he  followed  their  track  to  the  furze  bushes.  "  Mammy  !  " 
the  little  one  cried  again  and  again,  stretching  itself  forward  so  as 
almost  to  escape  from  Silas'  arms,  before  he  himself  was  aware  that 
there  was  something  more  than  the  bush  before  him  —  that  there 
was  a  human  body,  with  the  head  sunk  low  in  the  furze,  and  half 
covered  with  the  shaken  snow.      George  Eliot's  "Silas  Marner." 

Ex.  2.  I  am  always  very  well  pleased  with  a  country  Sunday, 
and  think,  if  keeping  holy  the  seventh  day  were  only  a  human 
institution,  it  would  be  the  best  method  that  could  have  been 
thought  of  for  the  polishing  and  civilizing  of  mankind.  It  is  cer- 
tain the  country  people  would  soon  degenerate  into  a  kind  of  savages 
and  barbarians,  were  there  not  such  frequent  returns  of  a  stated 
time,  in  which  the  whole  village  meet  together  with  their  best  faces, 
and  in  their  friendliest  habits,  to  converse  with  one  another  upon 
indifferent  subjects,  hear  their  duties  explained  to  them,  and  join 
together  in  adoration  of  the  Supreme  Being.     Sunday  clears  away 


THE  PARAGRAPH  231 

the  rust  of  tlie  whole  week,  not  only  as  it  refreshes  in  their  minds 
the  notions  of  religion,  but  as  it  puts  both  the  sexes  upon  appearing 
in  their  most  agreeable  forms,  and  exerting  all  such  qualities  as  are 
apt  to  give  them  a  ligure  in  the  eye  of  the  village.  A  country 
fellow  distinguishes  himseK  as  much  in  the  churchyard  as  a  citizen 
does  upon  the  'Change,  the  whole  parish  politics  being  generally 
discussed  in  that  place  either  after  sermon  or  before  the  bell  rings. 

Addison^s  "The  Country  Sabbath." 

EXERCISE 

I 

Bring  to  class  from  your  reading  three  paragraphs  in 
which  coherence  is  obvious.  Be  prepared  to  show  what 
logical  order  is  followed,  and  what  connecting  words  and 
phrases  are  used. 

II 

Criticise  the  following  paragraphs  with  reference  to 
coherence,  pointing  out  the  appropriateness  of  the  order 
of  development,  and  showing  why  other  connecting  words 
and  phrases  are  not  needed  : 

1.  The  third  of  July  was  the  most  terrible  morning  to  Louis. 
Before  he  was  up,  and  while  his  mother  was  by  his  bedside,  some 
officers  came  into  the  room  with  an  order  from  the  Convention 
that  Louis  should  be  taken  from  his  family  and  kept  in  the  most 
secure  room  in  the  Temple.  If  the  Queen  could  have  commanded 
herself  so  far  as  to  obey  at  once,  and  let  him  go  quietly,  the  unhappy 
boy  might  have  been  less  terrified  than  he  was.  But  this  was  hardly 
to  be  expected.  These  repeated  cruelties  had  worn  out  her  spirit, 
and  she  now  made  a  frantic  resistance.  For  a  whole  hour  she  kept 
off  the  officers  from  his  bed,  and  her  lamentations  were  dreadful  to 
hear;  so  that  the  terrified  boy  not  only  wept,  but  uttered  cries. 
His  aunt  and  sister,  though  in  tears,  commanded  themselves  so  far 
as  to  dress  him,  and  thus  show  that  they  intended  no  vain  opposition. 
The    officers    were    made    angry    by   the    delay   in   obeying   orders 


232  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

of  which  they  were  only  the  bearers.  They  did  all  they  could  in 
assuring  the  Queen  that  no  danger  to  the  boy's  life  was  to  be 
feared,  and  in  promising  to  convey  to  the  authorities  her  request 
that  she  might  see  him  at  meal  times,  at  least.  Then  they  carried 
him  off,  crying  bitterly.  He  never  again  saw  his  mother,  though 
she  saw  him  by  stealth. 

Harriet  Martineau's  "  The  Peasant  and  the  Prince." 

2.  Timon,  a  lord  of  Athens,  in  the  enjoyment  of  his  princely 
fortune,  affected  a  humor  of  liberality  which  knew  no  limit.  His 
almost  infinite  wealth  could  not  flow  in  so  fast,  but  he  poured  it 
out  faster  upon  all  sorts  and  degrees  of  people.  Not  the  poor  only 
tasted  of  his  bounty,  but  great  lords  did  not  disdain  to  rank  them- 
selves among  his  dependents  and  followers.  His  table  was  resorted 
to  by  all  the  luxurious  feasters,  and  his  house  was  open  to  all  comers 
and  goers  at  Athens.  His  large  wealth  combined  with  his  free  and 
prodigal  nature  to  subdue  all  hearts  to  his  love ;  men  of  all  minds 
and  dispositions  tendered  their  services  to  Lord  Timon,  from  the 
glass-faced  flatterer,  whose  face  reflects  as  in  a  mirror  the  present 
humor  of  his  patron,  to  the  rough  and  unbending  cynic,  who,  affect- 
ing a  contempt  of  men's  persons,  and  an  indifference  to  worldly 
things,  yet  could  not  stand  out  against  the  gracious  manners  and 
munificent  soul  of  Lord  Timon,  but  would  come  (against  his  nature) 
to  partake  of  his  royal  entertainments,  and  return  most  rich  in  his 
own  estimation,  if  he  had  received  a  nod  or  a  salutation  from  Timon. 
Charles  and  Mary  Lamb's  "  Tales  from  Shakespeare." 

Ill 
Write  a  paragraph  on  each  of  the  following  topics  con- 
nected with  your  study  of  the   college  requirements  in 
English : 

1.  Addison's  Friendship  wnth  Steele. 

2.  "  The  Perverse  Beautiful  Widow." 

3.  The  Lesson  of  Coleridge's  "  Ancient  Mariner." 

4.  The  Character  of  Dr.  Primrose. 

5.  Portia's  Suitors. 


THE  PARAGRAPH  233 

IV.    EMPHASIS 

174.  Emphasis  in  the  paragraph.  Emphasis  in  the  para- 
graph requires  that  the  ideas  be  given  their  proper  pro- 
portion and  that  the  important  sentences  be  placed  at  the 
beginning  or  the  end.  It  differs  from  emphasis  in  the 
theme  only  in  amount  of  the  material  to  be  considered. 

175.  Hindrances  to  emphasis  in  the  paragraph.  The  chief 
hindrances  to  emphasis  in  the  paragraph  are:  (1)  Lack 
of  proportion;  (2)  A  weak  beginning;  and  (3)  A  weak 
ending. 

176.  Chief  means  of  securing  emphasis  in  the  paragraph.  The 
means  used  in  securing  emphasis  in  the  paragraph  are  the 
same  as  those  used  in  securing  emphasis  in  the  theme. 
They  are  more  fully  discussed  in  Chapter  XII. 

1.  Weigh  carefully  the  relative  values  of  ideas  and  give 
them  space  according  to  their  importance.  Details  should 
be  kept  subordinate,  and  amplified  only  in  proportion  to 
their  individual  importance  to  the  main  idea.  Over- 
amplification  and  too  great  illustration  of  a  simple  state- 
ment will  clearly  be  violations  of  proportion,  and  give  a 
false  and  misleading  effect. 

2.  Develop  the  important  idea  expressed  in  the  topic- 
sentence  so  as  to  govern  the  beginning  and  the  ending  of  the 
paragraph  (see  §  179). 

3.  Arrange  a  climax  when  the  length  and  the  nature  of 
the  paragraph  warrant  it  (see  §  317). 

The  following  paragraphs  fulfill  the  requirements  of 
emphasis. 


234  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Ex.  1.  I  am  well  aware  that  in  these  dayvS  Hero-worship,  the 
thing  I  call  Hero-worship,  professes  to  have  gone  out,  and  inally 
ceased.  This,  for  reasons  which  it  will  be  worth  while  sometime 
to  inquire  into,  is  an  age  that,  as  it  were,  denies  the  existence  of 
great  men ;  denies  the  desirableness  of  great  men.  Show  our  critics 
a  great  man,  a  Luther  for  example,  they  begin  to  what  they  call 
"  account "  for  him ;  not  to  worship  him,  but  take  the  dimensions 
of  him,  —  and  bring  him  out  to  be  a  little  kind  of  man  !  He  was 
the  "  creature  of  the  Time,"  they  say ;  the  Time  called  him  forth, 
the  Time  did  everything,  he  nothing  —  but  what  we  the  little 
critic  could  have  done  too !  This  seems  to  me  but  melancholy 
work.  The  Time  call  forth?  Alas,  we  have  known  Times  call 
loudly  enough  for  their  great  man ;  but  not  find  him  when  they 
called !  He  was  not  there  ;  Providence  had  not  sent  him  ;  the 
Time,  calling  its  loudest,  had  to  go  down  to  confusion  and  wreck 
because  he  would  not  come  when  called. 

Carlyle's  "  Heroes  and  Hero-Worship." 

Ex.  2.  There  is  no  great  event  in  modern  history,  or,  perhaps 
it  may  be  said  more  broadly,  none  in  all  history,  from  its  earliest 
records,  less  generally  known,  or  more  striking  to  the  imagination, 
than  the  flight  eastwards  of  a  principal  Tartar  nation  across  the 
boundless  steppes  of  Asia  in  the  latter  half  of  the  last  century. 
The  terminus  a  quo^  of  this  flight  and  the  terminus  ad  quem^  are 
equally  magnificent  —  the  mightiest  of  Christian  thrones  being  the 
one,  the  mightiest  of  pagan  the  other ;  and  the  grandeur  of  these 
two  terminal  objects  is  harmoniously  supported  by  the  romantic 
circumstances  of  the  flight.  In  the  abruptness  of  its  commence- 
ment and  the  fierce  velocity  of  its  execution  we  read  an  expression 
of  the  wild,  barbaric  character  of  the  agents.  In  the  unity  of 
purpose  connecting  this  myriad  of  wills,  and  in  the  blind  but 
unerring  aim  at  a  mark  so  remote,  there  is  something  which  recalls 
to  the  mind  those  almighty  instincts  that  propel  the  migrations 
of  the  swallow  or  the  life-withering  marches  of  the  locust.     Then, 

1  The  point  of  departure. 

2  The  terminating  point. 


TKK    J'AHAGHAPII  *Z6h 

again,  in  the  gloomy  vengeance  of  Russia  and  her  vast  artillery, 
which  hung  upon  the  rear  and  the  skirts  of  the  fugitive  vassals, 
we  are  reminded  of  Miltonic  images  —  such,  for  instance,  as  that  of 
the  solitary  hand  pursuing  through  desert  spaces  and  through 
ancient  chaos  a  rebellious  host,  and  overtaking  with  volleying 
thunders  those  who  believed  themselves  already  within  the  security 
of  darkness  and  of  distance. 

De  Quince y'8  "  The  Flight  of  a  Tartar  Tribe." 

EXERCISE 

I 

Bring  to  class  from  your  reading  three  paragraphs  that 
embody  the  principles  of  emphasis.  Be  prepared  to  ana- 
lyze the  quotations  to  prove  the  wisdom  of  your  selection. 

II 

Criticise  the  following  paragraphs  with  reference  to 
proportion,  character  of  beginning  and  ending,  and  use 
of  climax  : 

1.  The  place  was  worthy  of  such  a  trial.  It  was  the  great  hall 
of  William  Rufus,  the  hall  which  had  resounded  with  acclamations 
at  the  inauguration  of  thirty  kings,  the  hall  which  had  witnessed 
the  just  sentence  of  Bacon  and  the  just  absolution  of  Somers,  the 
hall  where  the  eloquence  of  Strafford  had  for  a  moment  awed  and 
melted  a  victorious  party  inflamed  with  just  resentment,  the  hall 
where  Charles  had  confronted  the  high  Court  of  Justice  with  the 
placid  courage  wliich  has  half  redeemed  his  fame.  Neither  military 
nor  civic  pomp  was  wanting.  The  avenues  were  lined  with  grena- 
diers. The  streets  were  kept  clear  by  cavalry.  The  peers,  robed  in 
gold  and  ermine,  were  marshaled  by  the  heralds  under  Garter  King- 
at-arms.  The  judges  in  their  vestments  of  state  attended  to  give 
advice  on  points  of  law.  Near  a  hundred  and  seventy  lords,  three- 
fourths  of  the  Upper  House  as  the  Upper  House  then  was,  walked  in 
solemn  order  from  their  usual  place  of  assembling  to  the  tribunal. 


236  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

The  junior  baron  present  led  the  way,  George  Eliott,  Lord  Heath- 
field,  recently  ennobled  for  his  memorable  defense  of  Gibraltar 
against  the  fleets  and  armies  of  France  and  Spain.  The  long  pro- 
cession was  closed  by  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  Earl  Marshal  of  the 
realm,  by  the  great  dignitaries,  and  by  the  brothers  and  sons  of  the 
king.  Last  of  all  came  the  Prince  of  Wales,  conspicuous  by  his  fine 
person  and  noble  bearing.  The  gray  old  walls  were  hung  with 
scarlet.  The  long  galleries  were  crowded  by  an  audience  such  as 
has  rarely  excited  the  fears  or  the  emulation  of  an  orator.  There 
were  gathered  together,  from  all  parts  of  a  great,  free,  enlightened, 
and  prosperous  empire,  grace  and  female  loveliness,  wit  and  learn- 
ing, the  representatives  of  every  science  and  of  every  art.  There 
were  seated  round  the  Queen  the  fair-haired  young  daughters  of  the 
house  of  Brunswick.  There  the  Ambassadors  of  great  Kings  and 
Commonwealths  gazed  with  admiration  on  a  spectacle  which  no 
other  country  in  the  world  could  present.  There  Siddons,  in  the 
prime  of  her  majestic  beauty,  looked  with  emotion  on  a  scene  sur- 
passing all  the  imitations  of  the  stage.  There  the  historian  of  the 
Roman  Empire  thought  of  the  days  when  Cicero  pleaded  the  cause 
of  Sicily  against  Verres,  and  when,  before  a  senate  which  still 
retained  some  show  of  freedom,  Tacitus  thundered  against  the 
oppressor  of  Africa.  There  were  seen,  side  by  side,  the  greatest 
painter  and  the  gi'eatest  scholar  of  the  age.  The  spectacle  had 
allured  Reynolds  from  that  easel  which  has  preserved  to  us  the 
thoughtful  foreheads  of  so  many  writers  and  statesmen,  and  the 
sweet  smiles  of  so  many  noble  matrons.  It  had  induced  Parr  to 
susj)end  his  labors  in  that  dark  and  profound  mine  from  which 
he  had  extracted  a  vast  treasure  of  erudition,  a  treasure  too  often 
buried  in  the  earth,  too  often  paraded  with  injudicious  and  inelegant 
ostentation,  but  still  jirecious,  massive,  and  splendid.  There  appeared 
the  voluptuous  charms  of  her  to  whom  the  heir  of  the  throne  had 
in  secret  plighted  his  faith.  There  too  was  she,  the  beautiful  mother 
of  a  beautiful  race,  the  Saint  Cecilia  whose  delicate  features,  lighted 
up  by  love  and  music,  art  has  rescued  from  the  common  decay. 
There  were  the  members  of  that  brilliant  society  which  quoted, 
criticised,  and  exchanged  repartee,  under  the  rich  peacock-hang- 
ings  of  Mrs.   Montague.       And  there  the  ladies  whose  lips,  more 


THE  PARAGRAPH  237 

persuasive  than  those  of  Fox  himself,  liad  carried  the  Westminster 
election  against  palace  and  treasury,  shone  round  Georgiana,  Duchess 
of  Devonshire.  Macaulay's  "  Warren  Hastings." 

2.  Burns  first  came  upon  the  world  as  a  prodigy ;  and  was  in  that 
character  entertained  by  it,  in  the  usual  fashion,  with  loud,  vague, 
tumultuous  wonder,  speedily  subsiding  into  censure  and  neglect ;  till 
his  early  and  most  mournful  death  again  awakened  an  enthusiasm  for 
him,  which,  especially  as  there  was  now  nothing  to  be  done,  and 
much  to  be  spoken,  has  prolonged  itself  even  to  our  own  time.  It 
is  true,  the  "  nine  days  "  have  long  since  elajised ;  and  the  very  con- 
tinuance of  this  clamour  proves  that  Bums  was  no  vulgar  wonder. 
Accordingly,  even  in  sober  judgments,  where,  as  years  pass  by,  he 
has  come  to  rest  more  and  more  exclusively  on  his  own  intrinsic 
merits,  and  may  now  be  well-nigh  shorn  of  that  casual  radiance,  he 
appears  not  only  as  a  true  British  poet,  but  as  one  of  the  most  con- 
siderable British  men  of  the  eighteenth  centmy.  Let  it  not  be 
objected  that  he  did  little.  He  did  much,  if  we  consider  where  and 
how.  K  the  work  performed  was  small,  we  must  remember  that  he 
had  his  very  materials  to  discover ;  for  the  metal  he  worked  in  lay  hid 
under  the  desert  moor,  where  no  eye  but  his  had  guessed  its  existence ; 
and  we  may  almost  say,  that  with  his  own  hand  he  had  to  con- 
struct the  tools  for  fashioning  it.  For  he  found  himself  in  deepest 
obscurity,  without  help,  without  instruction,  without  model ;  or 
with  models  only  of  the  meanest  sort.  An  educated  man  stands,  as 
it  were,  in  the  midst  of  a  boundless  arsenal  and  magazine,  filled  with 
all  the  weapons  and  engines  which  man's  skill  has  been  able  to 
devise  from  the  earliest  time ;  and  he  works,  accordingly,  with  a 
strength  borrowed  from  all  past  ages.  How  different  is  his  state  who 
stands  on  the  outside  of  that  storehouse,  and  feels  that  its  gates  must 
be  stormed,  or  remain  forever  shut  against  him!  His  means  are 
the  commonest  and  rudest ;  the  mere  work  done  is  no  measure  of 
his  strength.  A  dwarf  behind  his  steam-engine  may  remove  moun- 
tains ;  but  no  dwarf  will  hew  them  down  with  a  pickaxe ;  and  he 
must  be  a  Titan  that  hurls  them  abroad  with  his  arms. 

Carlylb's  '*  Essay  on  Burns." 


238  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

III 

Write  a  paragraph  on  each  of  the  following  topics,  being 
careful  to  use  the  means  for  securing  emphasis  suggested 
in  Section  176 : 

1.  Lady  Macbeth's  Ruling  Motive. 

2.  The  Original  of  Scott's  Rebecca. 

3.  Silas  Marner's  Discovery  of  the  Loss  of  his  Gold. 

4.  The  Chief  Cause  of  the  Boxer  Uprising. 

5.  An  Unusual  Means  of  Livelihood. 


SUMMARY 

177.  The  paragraph  is  a  group  of  related  sentences 
which  develops  a  single  topic.  It  is  a  unit  of  writing, 
Avhether  it  is  an  isolated  paragraph,  which  is  a  composition 
in  miniature,  or  one  of  the  related  paragraphs  that  make 
up  a  long  theme. 

The  length  of  the  paragraph  depends  on  two  things : 
the  topics  to  be  discussed,  and  the  length  of  the  theme, 
which  modifies  the  amount  of  detail  to  be  given  on  each 
topic. 

Like  the  theme,  the  paragraph  should  possess  unity, 
coherence,  and  emphasis. 

Unity  deals  with  the  choice  of  material,  and  requires 
that  the  thought  be  focused  on  one  central  idea.  The 
chief  hindrances  to  unity  in  the  paragraph  are  :  digressions, 
a  shifting  of  the  point  of  view,  and  a  bad  or  uncertain 
beginning.  The  important  means  of  securing  unity  in 
the  paragraph  are  to  get  definitely  in  mind  the  central 
thought,  to  select  the  point  of  view  and  hold  firmly  to  it, 
to  secure  a  good  beginning,  and  to  avoid  digressions. 


THE  PARAGRAPH  239 

Coherence  in  the  paragraph  has  to  do  with  arrangement 
of  the  material  with  a  view  to  clearness.  The  main 
hindrances  to  this  clearness  are  :  lack  of  definiteness  in  the 
logical  arrangement,  and  lack  of  connecting  words  and 
phrases  to  show  the  relation  of  the  parts.  The  chief 
means  of  securing  it  are  to  seek  definitely  a  natural  and 
logical  order  of  developing  the  central  idea  as  expressed 
in  the  topic-sentence,  and  to  use  connecting  words  and 
phrases  to  indicate  the  connection. 

Emphasis  in  the  paragraph  has  to  do  with  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  material  with  a  view  to  proportion.  The 
chief  hindrances  to  emphasis  in  the  paragraph  are  :  lack  of 
proportion,  and  a  weak  beginning  or  ending.  The  most 
important  means  of  securing  this  quality  are  to  weigh 
carefully  the  relative  values  of  ideas,  and  give  them  space 
according  to  their  importance ;  to  arrange  the  important 
idea  of  the  topic-sentence  so  as  to  govern  the  beginning 
and  the  ending;  and  to  secure  a  climax  of  thought,  if 
needed. 


CHAPTER   XII 
DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   ISOLATED  PARAGRAPH 

Proper  words  in  proper  places. 

Swift. 

178.  The  topic-sentence.  Since  every  paragraph  is  the 
development  of  a  single  topic,  it  must  have  a  clearly 
defined  central  idea  upon  which  every  one  of  its  sentences 
directly  bears.  This  central  idea  is  usually  expressed 
definitely  in  one  of  the  sentences  of  the  paragraph,  called 
the  topic-sentence.  The  topic-sentence  is  generally  most 
effectiv-e  when  short  and  striking.  It  may  even  be  con- 
densed into  a  phrase,  as  on  page  243.  If  the  central  idea 
is  not  formally  stated,  it  must  be  very  clearly  implied. 
Even  if  it  is  merely  implied,  the  central  idea  should  be  so 
expressed  by  the  writer  that  it  can  readily  be  named  by 
the  thoughtful  reader.  The  vital  importance  of  the  topic- 
sentence  to  unity  and  coherence  in  the  paragraph  was 
made  clear  in  Sections  170  and  173. 

179.  Position  of  the  topic-sentence.  The  topic-sentence  is 
often  placed  first  in  the  paragi-aph,  especially  when  a  prin- 
ciple is  illustrated,  a  general  idea  made  clear  by  argument, 
or  a  formal  proposition  defended.  It  is  placed  first  in  the 
following  examples. 

Ex.  1.  [Topic-sentence.]  What  a  peculiar  power  of  fascination 
there  was  in  him  (Charles  Sumner)  as  a  public  man  !     It  acted  much 

240 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  ISOLATED  PARAGRAPH    241 

through  his  eloquence,  but  not  through  his  eloquence  alone.  There 
was  still  another  source  from  which  that  fascination  sprung.  Behind 
all  he  said  and  did  there  stood  a  grand  manhood,  which  never  failed 
to  make  itself  felt.  What  a  figure  he  was,  with  his  tall  and  stalwart 
frame,  his  manly  face,  topped  with  liis  shaggy  locks,  his  noble  bear- 
ing,—  the  finest  type  of  an  American  senatorship,  the  tallest  oak  of 
the  forest  !  Carl  Schurz. 

Ex.  2.  [Topio-sentence.]  As  a  forensic  orator,  I  know  of  no  age,  past 
or  present,  which  can  boast  his  (Webster's)  superior.  He  united  the 
boldness  and  energy  of  the  Grecian,  and  the  grandeur  and  strength 
of  the  Roman,  to  an  original,  sublime  simplicity,  which  neither 
Grecian  nor  Roman  possessed.  He  did  not  deal  in  idle  declamation 
and  lofty  expression ;  his  ideas  were  not  embalmed  in  rhetorical 
embellishments,  nor  buried  in  the  superfluous  tinselry  of  meta- 
phor and  trope.  He  clothed  them  for  the  occasion ;  and  if  the  crisis 
demanded,  they  stood  forth  naked,  in  all  their  native  majesty,  armed 
with  a  power  which  would  not  bend  to  the  fashion,  but  only  stooped 
to  conquer  the  reason.        Clarke's  "  Eulogy  on  Daniel  Webster." 

Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  place  the  topic-sentence  last^ 
instead  of  fii-st,  especially  to  secure  a  climax,  or  to  state 
the  central  idea  after  the  mind  has  been  prepared  for  it  by 
explanatory  details.  This  position  of  the  topic-sentence  is 
shown  in  the  following  illustrations. 

Ex.  1 .  The  judge,  who  was  a  shrewd  fellow,  winked  at  the  manifest 
iniquity  of  the  decision ;  and  when  the  court  was  dismissed,  went 
privily  and  bought  up  all  the  pigs  that  could  be  had  for  love  or 
money.  In  a  few  days  his  lordship's  town-house  was  observed  to  be 
on  fire.  The  thing  took  wing,  and  now  there  was  nothing  to  be  seen 
but  fire  in  every  direction.  Fuel  and  pigs  grew  enormously  dear  all 
over  the  district.  The  insurance  officers,  one  and  all,  shut  up  shop. 
People  built  slighter  and  slighter  every  day,  until  it  was  feared  that 
the  very  science  of  architecture  would  in  no  long  time  be  lost  to  the 
world.     Thus  this  custom  of  firing  houses  continued,  till  in  process 


242  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

of  time,  says  my  manuscript,  a  sage  arose,  like  our  Locke,  who  made 
a  discovery  that  the  flesh  of  swine,  or  indeed  of  any  other  animal, 
might  be  cooked  (burnt,  as  they  called  it),  without  the  necessity  of 
consuming  a  whole  house  to  dress  it.  Then  first  began  the  rude 
form  of  a  gridiron.  Roasting  by  the  string  or  spit  came  in  a  century 
or  two  later,  I  forget  in  whose  dynasty.  [Topic-sentence.]  By  such 
slow  degrees,  concludes  the  manuscript,  do  the  most  useful  and  seemingly 
the  most  obvious  arts  make  their  way  among  mankind. 

Lamb's  "A  Dissertation  on  Roast  Pig." 

Often  for  emphasis  the  topic-sentence  is  stated  at  the 
beginning  of  the  paragraph,  and  again  in  different  words 
at  the  end.  This  repetition  tends  to  give  clearness  and 
polish,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following  examples. 

Ex.  L  [Topic-sentence.]  Yes,  gentlemen,  it  is  to  your  immediate 
self-interest,  to  your  most  familiar  notions  of  prudence  and  policy,  that  I 
now  appeal.  I  say  not  to  you  now,  as  heretofore,  beware  how  you 
give  the  world  the  first  example  of  an  assembled  nation  untrue  to 
the  public  faith ;  I  ask  you  not,  as  heretofore,  what  right  you  have 
to  freedom,  or  what  means  of  maintaining  it,  if,  at  your  first  step  in 
administration,  you  outdo  in  baseness  all  the  old  and  corrupt  govern- 
ments. I  tell  you  that,  unless  you  prevent  this  catastrophe,  you  will 
all  be  involved  in  the  general  ruin  ;  [Topic-sentence]  and  that  you 
are  yourselves  the  persons  most  deeply  interested,  in  making  the  sacrifices 
which  the  government  demands  of  you. 

MiRABEAu's  "National  Bankruptcy." 

Ex.  2.  [Topic-sentence.]  A  heart  that  is  full  of  goodness,  that  loves 
and  pities,  that  yearns  to  invest  the  richest  of  its  mercy  in  the  souls  of  those 
that  need  it  —  how  sweet  a  tongue  hath  such  a  heart !  A  flute  sounded 
in  a  wood,  in  the  stillness  of  evening,  and  rising  up  among  leaves  that 
are  not  stirred  by  the  moonlight  above,  or  by  those  murmuring 
sounds  beneath ;  a  clock,  that  sighs  at  half  hours,  and  at  the  full 
hours  beats  the  silver  bell  so  gently  that  we  know  not  whence  the 
sound  comes,  unless  it  falls  through  the  air  from  heaven,  with  sounds 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  ISOLATED  PARAGRAPH    243 

as  sweet  as  dewdrops  make,  falling  upon  flowers;  a  bird  whonv* 
l)erfumes  have  intoxicated,  sleeping  in  a  blossomed  tree,  so  that  it 
speaks  in  its  sleep  with  a  note  so  soft  tliat  sound  and  slee}>  strive 
together,  and  neither  conquers,  but  the  sound  rocks  itself  upon  the 
bosom  of  sleep,  each  charming  the  other ;  a  brook  that  brings  down* 
the  greeting  of  the  mountains  to  the  meadows,  and  sings  a  serenade 
all  the  way  to  the  faces  that  watch  themselves  in  its  brightness;  — 
these,  and  a  hundred  like  figures,  the  imagination  brings  to  liken 
thereunto  [Condensed  topic-sentence]  the  chnrins  of  a  toiujue  which 
lore  plays  upon. 

Hbnky  Wakd  Bkecher's  "The  Pen  and  the  Tongue." 

In  many  cases,  especially  in  paragraphs  of  description 
or  narration,  the  theme  is  not  stated  positively  hi  any  part 
of  the  paragraph.  But  if  the  writer  has  had  a  single  topic 
clearly  in  mind  throughout  the  writing,  the  reader  can  find 
it  without  trouble.  In  the  first  of  the  following  illustra- 
tions the  paragraph  theme  that  is  implied  is  "  the  threat- 
ening aspect  of  Vesuvius";  in  the  second,  the  paragraph 
theme  is  "  the  ludicrous  appearance  of  the  residents  of 
Brook  Farm." 

Ex.  1 .  The  cloud,  wliicli  luid  scattered  so  deep  a  murkiness  over  the 
day,  had  now  settled  into  a  solid  and  impenetrable  mass.  It  resembled 
less  even  the  thickest  gloom  of  a  night  in  the  open  air  than  the  close 
and  blind  darkness  of  some  narrow  room.  But  in  proportion  as 
the  blackness  gathered,  did  the  lightnings  around  Vesuvius  increase 
in  their  vivid  and  scorching  glare.  Nor  was  their  horrible  beauty 
confined  to  the  usual  hues  of  fire;  no  rainbow  ever  rivaled  their 
varying  and  prodigal  dyes.  Now  brightly  blue  as  the  most  azure 
depth  of  a  southern  sky ;  now  of  a  livid  and  snake-like  green,  dart^ 
ing  restlessly  to  and  fro  as  the  folds  of  an  enormous  serpent ;  now  of 
a  lurid  and  intolerable  crimson,  gushing  forth  through  the  columns 
of  smoke,  far  and  wide,  and  lighting  up  the  whole  city  from  arch  to 
arch,  —  then  suddenly  dying  into  a  sickly  paleness,  like  the  ghost  of 
their  own  life  !  Bulwkk-Lytton's  "  The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii." 


244  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Ex.  2.  Arcadians  though  we  were,  our  costume  bore  no  resem- 
blance to  the  be-ribboned  doublets,  silk  breeches  and  stockings,  and 
slippers  fastened  with  artificial  roses,  that  distinguish  the  pastoral 
people  of  poetry  and  the  stage.  In  outward  show,  I  humbly  concede, 
we  looked  rather  like  a  gang  of  beggars,  or  banditti,  than  either  a 
company  of  honest  laboring  men  or  a  conclave  of  philosophers. 
Whatever  might  be  our  points  of  difference,  we  all  of  us  seemed  to 
have  come  to  Blithedale  with  the  one  thrifty  and  laudable  idea  of 
wearing  out  our  old  clothes.  Such  garments  as  had  an  airing  when- 
ever we  strode  afield  !  Coats  with  high  collars  and  with  no  collars, 
broad-skirted  or  swallowtailed,  and  with  the  waist  at  every  point 
between  the  hip  and  armpit  ;  pantaloons  of  a  dozen  successive 
epochs,  and  greatly  defaced  at  the  knees  by  the  humiliations  of  the 
wearer  before  his  lady-love  ;  in  short,  we  were  a  living  epitome  of 
defunct  fashions,  and  the  very  raggedest  presentment  of  men  who 
had  seen  better  days.  It  was  gentility  in  tatters.  We  might  have 
been  sworn  comrades  to  Falstaff's  ragged  regiment.  Little  skill  as 
we  boasted  in  other  points  of  husbandry,  every  mother's  son  of  us 
would  have  served  admirably  to  stick  up  for  a  scarecrow. 

Hawthorne's  "  The  Blithedale  Romance." 

180.  Development  of  the  topic-sentence.  The  topic-sentence 
needs  development  because  the  writer  and  his  readers  have 
had  different  experiences  and  must  be  put  upon  common 
ground.  The  writer  must  unfold  the  central  idea  in  such 
a  way  that  the  reader  may  be  able  to  interpret  it  by  his 
own  personal  experience.  The  chief  means  of  developing 
the  topic-sentence  are  by  repetition,  by  definition,  by  negar 
tion  or  contrast,  by  illustration,  by  details,  by  proof,  and 
by  application. 

181.  Repetition.  When  the  subject  treated  in  the  para- 
graph is  somewhat  obscure,  or  for  any  reason  needs 
emphasis,  it  may  be  repeated  in  other  words  immediately 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  ISOLATED  PARAGRAPH    245 

after  the  topic-sentence,  or  sometimes  Jater  in  the  para- 
graph. The  proper  use  of  repetition  is  shown  in  the 
following  paragi-aph. 

Ex.  [Topic-sentence.]  The  people  always  conquer.  They  always 
must  conquer.  Armies  may  be  defeated,  kings  may  be  overthrown, 
and  new  dynasties  imposed,  by  foreign  arms,  on  an  ignorant  and 
slavisli  race,  that  care  not  in  what  kinguage  the  covenant  of  their 
subjection  runs,  nor  in  whose  name  the  deed  of  their  barter  and  sale 
is  made  out.  [Repetition.]  But  the  people  never  invade  ;.  and,  when 
they  rise  against  the  invader,  are  never  subdued.  If  they  are  driven  from 
the  plains,  they  fly  to  the  mountains.  Steep  rocks  and  everlasting  hills 
are  their  castles ;  the  tangled,  pathless  thicket  is  tlieir  palisade,  and 
God  is  their  ally.  Now  he  overwhelms  the  hosts  of  their  enemies 
beneath  his  drifting  mountains  of  sand  ;  now  he  buries  them  beneath 
a  falling  atmosphere  of  polar  snows  ;  he  lets  loose  his  tempests  on 
their  fleets ;  he  puts  a  folly  into  their  counsels,  a  madness  into  the 
hearts  of  their  leaders  ;  and  never  gave,  and  never  will  give,  a  final 
triumph  over  a  virtuous  and  gallant,  people,  resolved  to  be  free. 

Edward  Everett's  "The  First  Battles  of  the  Revolution." 

Young  writers  are  apt  to  misuse  repetition  as  a  method 
of  paragraph  development.  Great  care  must  be  taken  that 
it  does  not  become  meaningless. 

182.  Definition.  The  topic-sentence  is  often  too  concise 
to  express  exactly  the  idea  to  be  expounded.  If  this  is 
true,  it  is  necessary  for  the  writer  to  define  by  restriction 
or  enlargement  the  meaning  of  the  topic-sentence.  This 
method  of  development  is  most  often  used  in  formal  expo- 
sition.    The  following  quotations  will  illustrate  its  use. 

Ex.  1 .  [Topic-sentence.]  It  is  well  said,  in  every  sense,  that  a  7nan's 
religion  is  the  chief  fact  with  regard  to  him.  By  religion  I  do  not 
mean  here  the  church  creed  which  he  professes,  the  articles  of  faith 
which  he  will  sign,  and,  in  words  or  otherwise,  assert;  not  this 


246  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

wholly,  in  many  cases  not  this  at  all.  We  see  men  of  all  kinds  of 
professed  creeds  attain  to  almost  all  degrees  of  worth  or  worthless- 
ness  under  each  or  any  of  them.  This  is  not  what  I  call  religion, 
this  profession  and  assertion ;  which  is  often  only  a  profession  and 
assertion  from  the  outworks  of  the  man,  from  the  mere  argumenta- 
tive region  of  him,  if  even  so  deep  as  that.  [Definition.]  But  the 
thing  a  man  does  practically  believe  (and  this  is  often  enough  without  assert- 
ing it  even  to  himself,  much  less  to  others^  :  the  thing  a  man  does  practi- 
cally lay  to  heart,  and  know  for  certain,  concerning  his  vital  relations  to 
this  mysterious  Universe,  and  his  duty  and  destiny  there,  that  is  in  all 
cases  the  primary  thing  for  him,  and  creatively  determines  all  the  rest. 
That  is  his  religion ;  or,  it  may  be,  his  mere  scepticism  and  no- 
religion  ;  the  manner  it  is  in  which  he  feels  himself  to  be  spirit- 
ually related  to  the  Unseen  World  or  No-World ;  and  I  say,  if  you 
tell  me  what  that  is,  you  tell  me  to  a  very  great  extent  what  the  man 
is,  what  the  kind  of  things  he  will  do  is. 

Carlyle's  "  Lecture  on  the  Hero  as  a  Divinity." 

Ex.  2.  [Topic-sentence.]  Th^  chief  use  of  any  man  to  the  world  is 
the  influence  of  his  aspirations,  [Definition.]  Not  achievements 
alone  can  determine  a  man''s  value  to  us  ;  but  the  vision  of  the  ideal  which 
he  has  and  gives  to  us,  in  words,  on  canvas,  in  marble,  in  stately  piles  of 
architecture.  It  is  that  which  a  man  suggests  rather  than  that  which  he 
does  that  charms  us  most. 

Solon  Lauer's  "Life  and  Light  from  Above." 

183.  Contrast.  The  idea  of  the  paragraph  may  some- 
times be  made  clearer  by  presenting  with  it  a  negative  or 
contrasting  idea.  It  is  sometimes  a  help  toward  seeing 
what  a  thing  is  to  know  what  it  is  not.  This  is  shown  in 
the  second  and  fourth  sentences  of  the  first  quotation  in 
Section  182.  It  is  also  illustrated  in  the  following 
selection. 

Ex.  [Topic-sentence.]  All  these  pleasures,  then,  and  all  these 
virtues,  I  repeat,  you  nationally  despise.     [Contrast  by  concession.] 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  ISOLATED  PAHA  GRAPH    247 

You  have,  indeed,  men  among  you  who  do  not :  by  whose  work,  by  whose 
strength,  by  whose  life,  by  whose  death,  you  live,  and  never  thank  them. 

Your  wealth,  your  amusement,  your  pride,  would  all  be  alike  impossible, 
but  for  those  whom  you  scorn  or  forget.  The  policeman,  who  is  loalking 
up  and  down  the  black  lane  all  night  to  watch  the  guilt  you  have  created 
(here,  and  may  have  his  brain.<i  beaten  out,  and  be  maimed  for  life,  at  any 
moment,  and  never  be  thanked ;  the  sailor  wrestling  with  the  sea's  rage  ; 
the  quiet  student  poring  over  his  book  or  his  vial;  the  common,  worker, 
without  praise,  and  nearly  without  bread,  fuljilling  his  task  as  your  horses 
drag  your  carts,  hopeless,  and  spurned  of  all,  —  these  are  the  men  by  whom 
England  lives.  But  they  are  not  the  nation  ;  they  are  only  tlie  body 
and  nervous  force  of  it,  acting  still  from  old  habit  in  a  convulsive 
perseverance,  while  the  mind  is  gone. 

Ruskin's  "Sesame  and  Lilies." 

184.  Illustration.  Many  thoughts  require  concrete  illus- 
tration, in  order  to  be  clearly  apprehended.  The  following 
paragraphs  contain  in  each  case  a  general  statement 
developed  in  this  way. 

Ex.  1.  [Topic-sentence.]  Life  is  one  and  universal;  its  forms, 
many  and  individual.  .  .  .  [Illustration.]  As  the  ice  upon  the  moun- 
tain, when  the  warm  breath  of  the  summer  sun  breathes  upon  it,  melts,  and 
divides  into  drops,  each  of  which  reflects  an  image  of  the  sun ;  so  life,  in 
the  smile  of  God's  love,  divides  itself  into  separate  forms,  each  bearing 
in  it  and  reflecting  an  image  of  God's  love. 

Longfellow's  "Hyperion." 

Ex.  2.  [Topic-sentence.]  What  is  the  kingdom  of  (iod?  Every 
kingdom  has  its  exports,  its  products.  [Illustration.]  Go  down  to  thr 
river  here  and  you  ivill  find  ships  coming  in  with  cotton  ;  you  know  they 
come  from  America:  you  will  find  ships  with  tea;  you  know  they 
are  from  China:  ships  with  wool;  you  know  they  come  from  Australia: 
ships  with  sugar;  you  know  they  come  from  Java.  What  comes  from 
the  kingdom  of  God?  Again  we  must  refer  to  our  Guide-book. 
Turn  to  Romans,  and  we  shall  find  what  the  kingdom  of  God  is. 

Drl'mmond's  "  A  Talk  with  Boys." 


248  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

185.  Details.  One  of  the  most  common  methods  of 
paragraph  development,  especially  in  description,  con- 
sists in  giving  the  details  of  which  the  topic-sentence  is 
the  general  statement.  This  method  of  development  is 
shown  in  the  following  illustrations. 

Ex.  1 .  [Topic-sentence.]  The  outward  appearance  of  these  two 
men  formed  scarce  a  stronger  contrast  than  their  look  and  demeanor. 
[Details.]  That  of  the  i^erf,  or  bondsman,  ivas  sad  and  sullen ;  his  aspect 
was  bent  on  the  ground  with  an  appearance  of  deep  dejection,  which  might 
be  almost  construed  into  apathy,  had  not  the  fire  which  occasionally 
sparkled  in  his  red  eye  manifested  that  there  slumbered,  under  the  appear- 
ance of  sullen  despondency,  a  sense  of  oppression,  and  a  disposition  to 
resistance.  The  holes'  of  Wamba,  on  the  other  hand,  indicated,  as  usual 
with  his  class,  a  sort  of  vacant  curiosity  and  fidgety  imjiatience  of  any 
posture  of  repose,  together  with  the  utmost  self-satisfaction  respecting  his 
own  situation  and  the  appearance  which  he  made. 

Scott's  "Ivanhoe." 

Ex.  2.  [Topic-sentence.]  In  England  there  was  scarcely  an  amount 
of  order  and  protection  to  justify  much  national  boasting.  [Details.] 
Daring  burglaries  by  armed  men,  and  highway  robberies,  took  place  in 
the  capital  itself  every  night ;  families  ivere  publicly  cautioned  not  to  go 
out  of  town  without  removing  their  fwniture  to  upholsterers'  icarehouses 
for  security ;  the  highwayman  in  the  dark  tvas  a  city  ti-adesman  in  the 
light,  and,  being  recognized  and  challenged  by  his  fellow-tradesman  whom 
he  stopped  in  hbi  character  of  "  the  Captainj'^  gallantly  shot  him  through 
the  head  and  rode  away ;  the  mail  was  waylaid  by  seven  robbers,  and  the 
guard  shot  three  dead,  and  then  got  shot  dead  himself  by  the  other  four 
"  in  consequence  of  the  failure  of  his  ammunition  ";  afer  which  the  mail 
was  robbed  in  peace;  that  magnificent  potentate,  the  Lord  Mayor  of 
London,  was  made  to  stand  and  deliver  on  Turnham  Green,  by  one 
highwayman,  who  despoiled  the  illustrious  creature  in  sight  of  all  his 
retinue;  prisoners  in  London  jails  fought  battles  with  their  turnkeys, 
and  the  majesty  of  the  law  fired  blunderbusses  in  among  them,  loaded  with 
rounds  of  shot  and  ball ;  thieves  snipped  off  diamond  crosses  from  the 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  ISOLATED  PARAGRAPH    249 

necks  of  noble  lords  at  Court  drawing-rooms ;  musketeers  went  into  St. 
Giles's,  to  search  for  contraband  tjoods,  and  the  mob  Jired  on  the  muske- 
teers, and  the  musketeers  Jired  on  the  mob,  and  nobody  thought  any  of 
these  occurrences  much  out  of  the  common  way. 

Dickens'  "  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities." 

186.  Proof.  Some  topic-sentences  require  formal  state- 
ments of  proof.  This  is  true  in  arguments  and  in  some 
other  forms  of  weighty  exposition.  The  following  illus- 
trations show  this  method  of  paragraph  development. 

Ex.  1 .  [Topic-sentence.]  The  peace  and  good  order  of  society  were 
not  promoted  by  this  system.  [Proof  1.]  Though  private  wars  did 
not  originate  in  the  feudal  customs,  it  is  impossible  to  doubt  that  they  were 
perpetuated  by  so  convenient  an  institution,  which  indeed  owed  its  universal 
establishment  to  no  other  cause.  [Proof  2.]  And  as  predominant  habits 
of  warfare  are  totally  irreconcilable  ttnth  those  of  industry,  not  merely  by 
the  immediate  works  of  destruction  which  render  its  effort  unavailing,  but 
through  that  contempt  of  peaceful  occupations  which  they  produce,  the 
feudal  system  must  have  been  intrinsically  adverse  to  the  accumulation  of 
wealth,  and  the  improvement  of  those  arts  which  mitigate  the  evils  or 
abridge  the  labors  of  mankind. 

Hallam's  "A  View  of  the  Middle  Ages." 

Ex.  2.  [Topic -sentence.]  Her  [Elizabeth's]  singular  talents  for 
government  were  founded  equally  on  her  temper  and  on  her  capacity. 
[Proof  1.]  Endowed  with  a  great  command  over  herself,  she  soon 
obtained  an  uncontrolled  ascendant  over  her  people  ;  and  while  she  merited 
all  their  esteem  by  her  real  virtues,  she  also  engaged  their  affections  by 
her  pretended  ones.  Few  sovereigns  of  England  succeeded  to  the 
throne  in  more  difficult  circumstances ;  and  none  ever  conducted 
the  government  with  such  uniform  success  and  felicity.  [Proof  2.] 
Though  unacquainted  with  the  practice  of  toleration, — the  true  secret  for 
managing  religious  factions,  — she  preserved  her  people,  by  her  superior 
prudence,  from  those  confusions  in  tahich  theological  controversy  had 
invoiced  all  the  neighboring  nations;  and  though  her  enemies  were  the 


250  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

most  pouierful  princes  of  Europe,  the  most  active,  the  most  enterprising, 
the  least  scrupulous,  she  was  able  by  her  vigor  to  make  deep  impressions 
on  their  states;  her  oivn  greatness  meanwhile  remained  untouched  and 

P         '  Hume's  "  History  of  England." 

187.  Application.  When  the  truth  of  a  topic-sentence 
may  be  assumed,  the  application  of  the  truth  to  a  pai- 
ticular  case  may  directly  follow,  as  in  the  following 
illustrations. 

Ex.  1.  [Topic-sentence.]  "All  true  art  is  praise."  .  .  .  [Applica- 
tion.] Fix  .  .  .  in  your  mind  as  the  guiding  principle  of  all  right  prac- 
tical labor,  and  source  of  all  healthful  life-energy,  —  that  your  praise  is  to 
be  the  praise  of  something  that  you  love.  It  may  be  only  the  praise  of  a 
shell  or  a  stone ;  it  may  be  the  praise  of  a  hero  :  it  may  be  the  praise  of 
God :  your  rank  as  a  living  creature  is  determined  by  the  height  and 
breadth  of  your  love;  but,  be  you  small  or  great,  what  healthy  art  is  pos- 
sible to  you  must  be  the  expi'ession  of  your  true  delight  in  a  real  thing, 
better  than  the  art.  Ruskin's  "  Laws  of  F^sole." 

Ex.  2.  [Topic-sentence.]  Curiosity  is  no  doubt  an  excellent 
quality.  [Application.]  In  a  C7'itic  it  is  especially  excellent.  To  want 
to  know  all  about  a  thing,  and  not  merely  one  man\^  account  or  version 
of  it ;  to  see  all  round  it,  or,  at  any  rate,  as  far  round  as  is  possible;  not 
to  be  lazy  or  indifferent,  or  easily  put  off,  or  scared  away, — all  this  is 
really  very  excellent.        Birrell's  "  Truth-Hunting  "  in  Obiter  Dicta. 

188.  Other  methods  of  paragraph  development.  The  various 
methods  of  development  already  described  are  most  useful 
in  formal  exposition.  In  other  kinds  of  writing  some 
combination  of  two  or  more  of  these  methods  is  often 
used.  In  narration  the  only  method  of  development  is 
often  that  of  natural  sequence  based  on  the  order  in 
which  the  events  happened.  While  the  student  should 
practice  each  well-defined  method  of   development  until 


DEVELOtMENT  OF  THE  ISOLATED  FAEAGHAFH    251 

he  is  thorough  master  of  its  use,  yet  he  should  use  his 

own    individuality  in   choosing  the   best  method  for    his 

purpose.      The    paragraph   which   follows   shows  a  com- 
bination of  methods  already  described. 

llx.  [T'opic-sentence.]  And  the  most  notable  quality  of  such 
books  is  their  suggestiveness.  [illustration  and  Negation.]  They 
bring  their  thought  and  give  it  to  us,  not  as  men  bring  their  treasures 
to  a  warehouse,  laying  them  down  there  upon  the  floor  as  on  a  foreign, 
unrelated  substance,  but  as  you  bring  the  spark  of  fire  to  a  pile  of 
wood  which  has  within  it  the  power  of  burning  and  turning  into 
fire.  Tt  is  not  the  fullness  of  their  hands  which  makes  them  wel- 
come. [Definition.]  It  is  the  delicacy  and  discrimination  of  the 
finger  which  they  lay  upon  some  spring  in  us  and  by  which  they  set 
some  of  our  nature  free. 

1'hillips  Brooks  in  his  Introduction  to  "  Helps  by  the  Way." 

189.  Use  of  introductory,  transitional,  and  summarizing  sen- 
tences. Besides  the  sentences  which  are  used  to  develop 
the  paragraph  in  one  of  the  ways  already  described,  there 
are  in  some  paragraphs  other  sentences  the  uses  of  which 
are  implied  by  their  names. 

Introductory  sentences  prepare  the  way  for  the  topic- 
sentence.  In  many  paragraphs  the  introductory  idea  is 
condensed  into  a  phrase  or  clause.  When  it  is  used,  the 
topic-sentence  often  occurs  near  the  middle  or  end  of  the 
paragraph,  as  in  the  following  example. 

Ex.  [Introtluctory  sentences.]  Wordsworth  has  been  in  his  yrare 
for  some  thirty  years,  and  certainly  his  lovers  and  admirers  cannot  Jiutter 
themselves  that  this  yreat  and  steady  liyht  of  glory  as  yetjihines  over  him. 
He  Is  not  fully  recoynized  at  home;  he  is  not  recognized  at  all  abroad. 
[Topic-sentence.]  Yet  I  firmly  believe  that  the  poetical  performance 
of  Wordsworth  is,  after  that  of  Shakespeare  and  Milton,  of  whicli  all 


252  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

the  world  now  recognizes  the  worth,  undoubtedly  the  most  consider- 
able in  our  language  from  the  Elizabethan  Age  to  the  present  time. 
[Contrast.]  Chaucer  is  anterior  ;  and  on  other  grounds,  too,  he 
cannot  well  be  brought  into  the  comparison.  [Detail.]  But  taking 
the  roll  of  our  chief  poetical  names,  besides  Shakespeare  and  Milton, 
from  the  age  of  Elizabeth  downwards,  and  going  through  it,  —  Spen- 
ser, Dryden,  Pope,  Gray,  Goldsmith,  Cowper,  Burns,  Coleridge, 
Scott,  Campbell,  Moore,  Byron,  Shelley,  Keats  (I  mention  those  only 
who  are  dead),  —  I  think  it  certain  that  Wordsworth's  name  deserves 
to  stand,  and  will  finally  stand  above  them  all.  Several  of  the  poets 
named  have  gifts  and  excellences  which  Wordsworth  has  not. 
[Topic-sentence  repeated.]  But  taking  the  performance  of  each  as 
a  whole,  I  say  that  Wordsworth  seems  to  me  to  have  left  a  body  of 
poetical  work  superior  in  power,  in  interest,  in  the  qualities  which 
give  enduring  freshness,  to  that  which  any  one  of  the  others  has  left. 

Matthew  Arnold's  Preface  to  "Wordsworth's  Poems." 

Transitional  sentences  should  make  plain  the  connec- 
tion between  the  topics  treated  in  adjacent  paragraphs. 
The  third  sentence  in  Section  250  is  of  this  kind.  Short 
summarizing  sentences  are  sometimes  needed,  especially 
at  the  end  of  long  and  important  paragraphs,  to  bring 
together,  clustered  about  the  central  idea,  the  various 
modifications  of  that  idea  which  the  several  sentences 
have  shown.  Such  a  sentence  is  to  be  found  at  the  end 
of  Section  257,  4.  A  sentence  summarizing  the  preced- 
ing paragraph  is  often  effective  also  as  an  introductory 
sentence  (see  the  example  in  §  183). 

EXERCISE 
I 

Analyze  the  following  paragraphs,  pointing  out  the 
topic-sentences  and  all  the  means  by  which  the  topic- 
sentences  have  been  developed: 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  ISOLATED  PARAGRAPH    253 

1.  But  thou  shalt  live  so  beset,  so  hemmed  in,  so  watched,  by  the 
vigilant  guards  I  have  placed  around  thee,  that  thou  shalt  not  stir  a 
foot  against  the  Rej^ublic  without  my  knowledge.  There  shall  be 
eyes  to  detect  thy  slightest  movement,  and  ears  to  catch  thy  wariest 
whisj^er.  Thou  shalt  be  seen  and  heard  when  thou  dost  not  dream 
of  a  witness  near.  The  darkness  of  night  shall  not  cover  thy  trea- 
son ;  the  walls  of  privacy  shall  not  stifle  its  voice. 

Cicero's  "Arraignment  of  Catiline." 

2.  To  win  and  hold  a  friend,  we  are  compelled  to  keep  ourselves 
at  his  ideal  point,  and  in  turn  our  love  makes  on  him  the  same 
appeal.  All  around  the  circle  of  our  best  beloved,  it  is  this  idealiz- 
ing that  gives  to  love  its  beauty,  and  its  pain,  and  its  mighty  leverage 
on  character,  —  its  beauty,  because  that  idealizing  is  the  secret  of 
love's  glow  ;  its  pain,  because  that  idealizing  makes  the  constant 
peril  of  its  vanishing ;  its  leverage  to  uplift  character,  because  this 
same  idealizing  is  a  constant  challenge  between  every  two,  compell- 
ing each  to  be  his  best.  "What  is  the  vsecret  of  your  life?"  asked 
Mrs.  Browning  of  Charles  Kingsley.  "  Tell  me  that  I  may  make 
mine  beautiful  too."     He  replied,  "  I  had  a  friend." 

William  Channing  Gannett. 

3.  Never  since  literature  became  a  calling  in  England  had  it  been  a 
less  gainful  calling  than  at  the  time  when  Jolmson  took  up  his  resi- 
dence in  London.  In  the  preceding  generation,  a  writer  of  eminent 
merit  was  sure  to  be  munificently  rewarded  by  the  government.  The 
least  that  he  could  expect  was  a  pension  or  a  sinecure  place ;  and,  if 
he  showed  any  aptitude  for  politics,  he  might  hope  to  be  a  member 
of  parliament,  a  lord  of  the  treasury,  an  ambassador,  a  secretary  of 
state.  It  would  be  easy,  on  the  other  hand,  to  name  several  writers 
of  the  nineteenth  century  of  whom  the  least  successful  has  received 
forty  thousand  pounds  from  the  booksellers.  But  Johnson  entered 
on  his  vocation  in  the  most  dreary  part  of  the  dreary  interval  which 
separated  two  ages  of  prosperity.  Literature  had  ceased  to  flourish 
under  the  patronage  of  the  great,  and  not  begun  to  flourish  under 
the  patronage  of  the  public.  One  man  of  letters,  indeed,  Pope,  had 
acquired  by  his  pen  what  was  then  considered  a  handsome  fortune, 


254  COMPOSITION  ANB  RHETORIC 

and  lived  on  a  footing  of  equality  with  nobles  and  ministers  of  state. 
But  this  was  a  solitary  exception.  Even  an  author  whose  reputation 
was  established,  and  whose  works  were  popular  ;  such  an  author  as 
Thomson,  whose  "  Seasons  "  were  in  every  library ;  such  an  author 
as  Fielding,  whose  "  Paquin  "  had  had  a  greater  run  than  any  drama 
since  the  "  Beggars'  Opera,"  was  sometimes  glad  to  obtain,  by  pawn- 
ing his  best  coat,  the  means  of  dining  on  tripe  at  a  cookshop  under- 
ground, where  he  could  wipe  his  hands,  after  his  greasy  meal,  on 
the  back  of  a  Newfoundland  dog.  It  is  easy,  therefore,  to  imagine 
what  humiliations  and  privations  must  have  awaited  the  novice 
who  had  still  to  earn  a  name.  One  of  the  publishers  to  whom 
Johnson  applied  for  employment,  measured  with  a  scornful  eye  that 
athletic  though  uncouth  frame  and  exclaimed,  ''You  had  better 
get  a  porter's  knot  and  carry  trunks."  Nor  was  the  advice  bad; 
for  a  porter  was  likely  to  be  as  plentifully  fed  and  as  comfortably 

°  ^      *  Macaulay's  "Essay  on  Johnson." 

4.  The  second  fruit  of  friendship  is  healthful  and  sovereign  for 
the  understanding  as  the  first  is  for  the  affections.  For  friendship 
inaketh  indeed  a  fair  day  in  the  affections,  from  storm  and  tempests  ; 
but  it  maketh  daylight  in  the  understanding,  out  of  darkness  and  con- 
fusion of  thoughts.  Neither  is  this  to  be  understood  only  of  faithful 
counsel,  which  a  man  receiveth  from  his  friend  ;  but  before  you  come 
to  that,  certain  it  is  that  whosoever  hath  his  mind  fraught  with  many 
thoughts,  his  wits  and  understanding  do  clarify  and  break  up,  in  the 
communicating  and  discoursing  with  another  ;  he  tosseth  his  thoughts 
more  easily ;  he  marsh aleth  them  more  orderly ;  he  seeth  how  they 
look  when  they  are  turned  into  words  ;  finally,  he  waxeth  wiser  than 
himself ;  and  that  more  by  an  hour's  discourse  than  by  a  day's  medi- 
tation. It  was  well  said  by  Themistocles  to  the  king  of  Persia,  "  That 
speech  was  like  cloth  of  Arras  opened  and  put  abroad :  whereby  the 
imagery  doth  appear  in  figure  ;  whereas  in  thoughts  they  lie  but  as  in 
packs."  Neither  is  this  second  fruit  of  friendship,  in  opening  the  un- 
derstanding, restrained  only  to  such  friends  as  are  able  to  give  a  man 
counsel  (they  indeed  are  best),  but,  even  without  that,  a  man  learneth 
of  himself,  and  bringeth  his  own  thoughts  to  light,  and  whetteth  his 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  ISOLATED  PARAGRAPH    255 

wits  as  against  a  stone,  which  itself  cuts  not.  In  a  word,  a  man  were 
better  to  relate  himself  to  a  statue  or  picture  than  to  suifer  his 
thoughts  to  pass  in  smother.         j^^^^^^,^  ,,  p,^^y  ^^  Friendship." 

5.  The  human  species,  according  to  the  best  theory  I  can  form  of 
it,  is  composed  of  two  distinct  races,  the  men  who  borrow  and  the  men 
who  lend.  To  these  original  diversities  may  be  reduced  all  those 
impertinent  classifications  of  Gothic  and  Celtic  tribes,  white  men, 
black  men,  red  men.  All  the  dwellers  upon  earth,  "  Parthians,  and 
Medes,  and  Elamites,"  flock  hither,  and  do  naturally  fall  in  with  one 
or  other  of  these  primary  distinctions.  The  infinite  superiority  of  the 
former,  which  I  choose  to  designate  as  the  (/real  i-ace,  is  discernible  in 
their  figure,  port,  and  a  certain  instinctive  sovereignty.  The  latter 
are  born  degraded.  "  He  shall  serve  his  brethren."  There  is  some- 
thing in  the  air  of  one  of  this  cast,  lean  and  suspicious ;  contrasting 
with  the  open,  trusting,  generous  manners  of  the  other. 

Lamb's  "Essays  of  Elia." 

6.  A  people's  literature  is  a  criterion  of  a  people's  civilization. 
It  embodies  what  is  most  enduring  in  thought,  and  records  what  is 
best  worth  remembering  in  deeds.  A  people  may  be  conquered ;  it 
may  lose  its  individuality  ;  it  may  change  its  religion,  government, 
its  soil ;  but  so  long  as  its  literature  remains,  its  growth  and  develojv 
ment,  its  rise  and  fall,  its  character  and  genius,  continue  objects  of 
interest  and  teach  a  lesson  tf>  all  who  wish  to  be  instructed. 

Brother  Azarias'  "Development  of  Old  English  Thought." 

7.  And  Raveloe  was  a  village  where  many  of  the  old  echoes 
lingered,  undrowned  by  new  voices.  Not  that  it  was  one  of  those 
barren  parishes  lying  oh  the  outskirts  of  civilization,  inhabited  by 
meagre  sheep  and  thinly  scattered  shepherds ;  on  the  contrary,  it  lay 
in  the  rich  central  plain  of  what  we  are  pleased  to  call  Merry  Eng- 
land, and  held  farms,  which,  speaking  from  a  spiritual  point  of  view, 
paid  highly  desirable  tithes.  But  it  was  nestled  in  a  snug,  well- 
wooded  hollow,  quite  an  hour's  journey  on  horseback  from  any  turn- 
pike, where  it  was  never  reached  by  the  vibrations  of  the  coach-horn. 


266  COMPOSITION  AND  BHETORIC 

or  of  public  opinion.  It  was  an  important-looking  village,  with  a  fine 
old  church  and  large  churchyard  in  the  heart  of  it,  and  two  or  three 
large  brick  and  stone  homesteads,  with  well-walled  orchards  and  orna- 
mental weathercocks,  standing  close  upon  the  road,  and  lifting  more 
imposing  fronts  than  the  rectory,  which  peeped  from  among  the  trees 
on  the  other  side  of  the  churchyard  ;  —  a  village  which  showed  at  once 
the  summits  of  its  social  life,  and  told  the  practiced  eye  that  there  was 
no  great  park  and  manor-house  in  the  vicinity,  but  that  there  were 
several  chiefs  in  Raveloe  who  could  farm  badly  quite  at  their  ease, 
drawing  enough  money  from  their  bad  farming,  in  those  war  times, 
to  live  in  a  rollicking  fashion,  and  keep  a  jolly  Christmas,  Whitsun, 
and  Eastertide.  George  Eliot's  "Silas  Marner." 

8.  He  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  popular  men  of  his 
time  ;  and  much  of  this  popularity  he  owed,  we  believe,  to  that  very 
timidity  which  his  friends  lamented.  That  timidity  often  prevented 
him  from  exhibiting  his  talents  to  the  best  advantage.  But  it  pro- 
pitiated Nemesis.  It  averted  that  envy  which  would  otherwise  have 
been  excited  by  a  fame  so  splendid,  and  by  so  rapid  an  elevation. 
No  man  is  so  great  a  favorite  with  the  public  as  he  who  is  at  once 
an  object  of  admiration,  of  respect,  and  of  pity ;  and  such  were  the 
feelings  which  Addison  inspired.  Those  who  enjoyed  the  privilege 
of  hearing  his  familiar  conversation  declared  with  one  voice  that  it 
was  superior  even  to  his  writings.  The  brilliant  Mary  Montagu 
said  that  she  had  known  all  the  wits,  and  that  Addison  was  the  best 
company  in  the  world.  The  malignant  Pope  was  forced  to  own 
that  there  was  a  charm  in  Addison's  talk  which  could  be  found 
nowhere  else.  Swift,  when  burning  with  animosity  against  the 
Whigs,  could  not  but  confess  to  Stella  that,  after  all,  he  had  never 
known  any  associate  so  agreeable  as  Addison.  Steele,  an  excellent 
judge  of  lively  conversation,  said  that  the  conversation  of  Addison 
was  at  once  the  most  polite  and  the  most  mirthful  that  could  be 
imagined ;  that  it  was  Terence  and  Catullus  in  one,  heightened  by 
an  exquisite  something  which  was  neither  Terence  nor  Catullus,  but 
Addison  alone.  Yeung,  an  excellent  judge  of  serious  conversation, 
said,  that  when  Addison  was  at  his  ease  he  went  on  in  a  noble  strain 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  ISOLATED  PARAGRAPH    257 

of  thought  and  language,  so  as  to  chain  tlie  attention  of  every  hearer. 
Nor  were  Addison's  gi-eat  colloquial  powers  more  admirable  than  the 
courtesy  and  softness  of  heart  which  appeared  in  his  conversation. 

Macaulay's  "Essay  on  Addison." 

9.  Seek  out  "  acceptable  words  " ;  and  as  ye  seek  them  turn  to 
our  English  stores.  Seeking  to  be  rich  in  speech,  you  will  find  that 
in  the  broad  ocean  of  our  English  literature  there  are  pearls  of  great 
price,  our  potent  English  words  ;  words  that  are  wizards  more 
mighty  than  the  old  Scotch  magician  ;  words  that  are  pictures  bright 
and  moving  with  all  the  coloring  and  circumstances  of  life ;  words 
that  go  down  the  century  like  battle  cries ;  words  that  sob  like  lita- 
nies, sing  like  larks,  sigh  like  zephyrs,  shout  like  seas.  Seek  amid 
our  exhaustless  stores  and  you  will  find  words  that  flash  like  the 
stars  of  the  frosty  skies,  or  are  melting  and  tender  like  Love's  tear- 
filled  eyes ;  words  that  are  fresh  and  crisp  like  the  mountain  breeze 
in  autumn,  or  are  mellow  and  rich  as  an  old  painting ;  words  that 
are  sharp,  unbending,  and  precise  like  Alpine  needle-points,  or  are 
heavy  and  rugged  like  great  nuggets  of  gold ;  words  that  are  glitter- 
ing and  gay  like  imperial  gems,  or  are  chaste  and  refined  like 
the  face  of  a  Muse.  Search  and  ye  shall  find  words  that  crush 
like  the  battle-axe  of  Richard,  or  cut  like  the  scimitar  of  Saladin ; 
words  that  sting  like  a  serpent's  fangs,  or  soothe  like  a  mother's 
kiss ;  words  that  can  unveil  the  nether  depths  of  Hell,  or  point  out 
the  heavenly  heights  of  purity  and  peace ;  words  that  can  recall  a 
Judas  ;  words  that  reveal  the  Christ. 

John  S.  McIntosh's  "The  Potency  of  English  Words." 

10.  What  are  the  great  faults  of  conversation  ?  Want  of  ideas, 
want  of  words,  want  of  manners  are  the  principal  ones,  I  sujipose 
you  think.  I  don't  doubt  it,  but  I  will  tell  you  what  I  have  found 
spoil  more  good  talks  than  anything  else ;  long  arguments  on  special 
points  between  people  who  differ  on  the  fundamental  principles  on 
which  these  points  depend.  No  men  can  have  satisfactory  relations 
with  each  other  until  they  have  agreed  on  certain  ultimata  of  belief 
not  to  be  disturbed  in  ordinary  conversation,  and  unless  they  have 
sense  enough  to  trace  the  secondary  questions  depending  upon  these 


258  coMPosirioN  and  rhetoric 

ultimate  beliefs  to  their  source.  lu  short,  just  as  a  written  constitu- 
tion is  essential  to  the  best  social  order,  so  a  code  of  finalities  is  a 
necessary  condition  of  profitable  talk  between  two  persons.  Talking 
is  like  playing  on  the  harp ;  there  is  as  much  in  laying  the  hand  on 
the  strings  to  stop  their  vibrations  as  in  twanging  them  to  bring  out 

Holmes'  " The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast-Table." 

II 

Bring  to  class  a  paragraph  in  which  the  topic-sentence 
is  developed  by  each  of  the  following  means : 

1.  Repetition. 

2.  Definition. 

3.  Proofs. 

4.  A  combination  of  several  methods, 

III 

Develop  by  use  of  details  a  paragraph  on  each  of  the 
following  subjects : 

1.  A  description  of  a  place  to  give  the  effect  of  beauty. 

2.  A  character  sketch  of  some  person. 

3.  An  anecdote  of  some  celebrity. 

IV 

Write    paragraphs    developing  the    topic-sentences    by 
each  of  the  following  methods : 

1.  Contrast. 

2.  Explanation  or  illustration. 


Write  a  paragraph  from  each  of  the  following  topic- 
sentences,  using  introductory,  transitional,  and  summariz- 
ing sentences  if  needed  : 


DEVELOPMENT  OF   THE  ISOLATED  PARAGRAPH    259 

1.  The  conquest  of  the  Philippines  was  (or  was  not)  an  expe<lient 
political  measure. 

2.  Nature  is  most  lovely  in  the  springtime, 

3.  The  Xorth-American  Indian  has  been  shamefully  treated  by 
the  United  States  Government. 

4.  A  sense  of  the  ludicrous  is  essential  to  greatness. 

6.  Historic  buildings  should  be  owned  and  preserved  by  the 
government. 

SUMMARY 

190.  The  centi-al  idea  of  a  paragraph  is  usually 
expressed  in  one  of  the  sentences  of  the  paragraph, 
called  the  topic-sentence.  This  is  generally  most  effec- 
tive when  short  and  striking,  and  may  even  be  con- 
densed into  a  phrase. 

The  topic-sentence  is  often  j)laced  first  in  tlie  paragrapl), 
especially  when  a  piinciple  is  to  be  illustrated,  a  general 
idea  made  clear  by  argument,  or  a  formal  proposition 
defended  ;  it  is  sometimes  placed  last  to  secure  a  climax, 
or  to  separate  the  central  idea  after  the  mind  has  been 
prepared  for  it  by  the  use  of  explanatory  details  ;  it  is 
sometimes  placed  first  and  then  repeated  at  the  end  for 
emphasis  or  to  give  finish  to  a  carefully  elaborated  thought ; 
or  it  may  be  implied  only,  but  in  so  clear  a  manner  that 
the  thoughtful  I'eader  will  have  no  difficulty  in  knowing 
what  it  is  intended  to  be. 

The  chief  means  of  developing  the  topic-sentence  are 
by  repetition,  definition,  negation  or  contrast,  illustration, 
details,  proof,  and  application.  The  writer  should  show  his 
own  individuality  by  his  combination  of  these  methods  of 
development,  or  by  his  use  of  any  other  method  that  is 
adapted  to  his  purpose. 


260  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Besides  the  sentences  which  are  used  to  develop  the 
paragraph  in  the  ways  just  mentioned,  some  paragraphs 
contain  introductory,  transitional,  or  summarizing  sen- 
tences :  the  first,  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  topic-sen- 
tence ;  the  second,  to  prevent  the  bringing  of  new  and 
important  ideas  too  closely  together  ;  the  third,  to  bring 
together,  clustered  about  the  central  idea,  the  various 
modifications  of  that  idea  which  the  several  sentences 
have  shown. 


CHAPTER   XIII 
RELATED   PARAGRAPHS 

We  should  manage  our  thouglits  as  shepherds  do  their  flowers  in  making 
a  garhiud ;  first  select  the  choicest,  and  then  dispose  them  in  the  most  proper 
places,  that  every  one  may  reflect  a  part  of  its  color  and  brightness  on  the 

noxt.  —  COLERID<JE. 

191.  Importance  of  the  study  of  related  paragraphs.  The 
lengtli  of  the  paragraph,  the  essential  qualities,  and,  in  a 
general  way,  the  kinds  of  paragraphs  that  enter  into  a 
theme  have  been  discussed  in  the  preceding  chaptei-s.  So 
many  students,  however,  have  difficulty  in  grouping, 
dividing,  and  arranging  the  paragraphs  of  the  longer 
theme,  that  it  Avill  be  found  helpful  to  give  special 
attention  to  the  subject  of  related  paragraphs. 

192.  Kinds  of  related  paragraphs.  In  connected  wiiting, 
introductory  and  concluding  paragraphs,  transitional  para- 
graphs, and  am})lifying  paragraphs  may  be  used. 

193.  Introductory  and  concluding  paragraphs.  It  will  be 
well  for  the  student  at  this  point  to  review  the  discussion 
of  this  subject  found  in  Sections  146-148.  These  para- 
graphs are  often  not  needed  at  all,  especially  in  descrip- 
tion and  narration.  When  used  they  should  commonly 
be  brief  and  always  to  the  point. 

The  object  of  the  introductory  paragraph  is  to  state 
clearly  the  subject  to  be  treated,  or  to  give  the  author's 

261 


262  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

point  of  view,  when  the  topic-sentence  of  the  following 
paragraph  is  not  sufficient  to  accomplish  these  ends. 

The  concluding  paragraph  should  briefly  sum  up  or 
emphasize  the  main  thought  of  the  theme.  Sometimes, 
however,  the  summary  is  implied  in  the  topic-sentence 
of  the  preceding  paragraph.  The  first  of  the  following 
examples  is  an  introductory  paragraph ;  the  second,  a 
concluding  paragraph. 

Ex.  1.  I  hope,  Sir,  that,  notwithstanding  the  austerity  of  the 
Chair,  your  good  nature  will  incline  you  to  some  degree  of  indul- 
gence towards  human  frailty.  You  will  not  think  it  unnatural  that 
those  who  have  an  object  depending,  which  strongly  engages  their 
hopes  and  fears,  should  be  somewhat  inclined  to  superstition.  As 
I  came  into  the  House,  full  of  anxiety  about  the  event  of  my 
motion,  I  found,  to  my  infinite  surprise,  that  the  gi-and  penal  bill, 
by  which  we  had  passed  sentence  on  the  trade  and  sustenance  of 
America,  is  to  be  returned  to  us  from  the  other  House.  I  do  con- 
fess, T  could  not  help  looking  on  this  event  as  a  fortunate  omen.  I 
look  upon  it  as  a  sort  of  providential  favor ;  by  which  we  are  put 
once  more  in  possession  of  our  deliberative  capacity,  upon  a  busi- 
ness so  very  questionable  in  its  nature,  so  very  uncertain  in  its  issue. 
By  the  return  of  this  bill,  which  seemed  to  have  taken  its  flight 
forever,  we  are  at  this  very  instant  nearly  as  free  to  choose  a  plan 
for  our  American  government  as  we  were  on  the  first  day  of  the 
session.  If,  Sir,  we  incline  to  the  side  of  conciliation,  we  are  not 
at  all  embarrassed  (unless  we  please  to  make  ourselves  so)  by  any 
incongruous  mixture  of  coercion  and  restraint.  We  are  therefore 
called  upon,  as  it  were,  by  a  superior  warning  voice,  again  to 
attend  to  America;  to  attend  to  the  whole  of  it  together;  and  to 
review  the  subject  with  an  unusual  degree  of  care  and  calmness. 

Bukke's  "  Speech  on  Conciliation." 

Ex.  2.  We  may  thus  sum  up  the  result  of  our  inquiries  :  among 
the  great  nations  of  primitive  antiquity  who  stood  the  nearest,  or  at 


RELATED  PARAGRAPHS  263 

least  very  near,  to  tlie  source  of  sacred  tradition  —  the  word  of 
primitive  revelation  —  the  Chinese  hold  a  very  distinguished  place; 
and  many  passages  in  their  primitive  history,  many  remarkable  ves- 
tiges of  eternal  truth  —  the  heritage  of  old  thoughts  —  to  be  found 
in  their  ancient  classical  works,  prove  the  originally  high  eminence 
of  this  people.  But  at  a  very  early  period  their  science  had  taken  a 
course  completely  erroneous,  and  even  their  language  partly  followed 
this  direction,  or  at  least  assumed  a  very  stiff  and  artificial  char- 
acter. Descending  from  one  degree  of  political  idolatry  to  a  grade 
still  lower,  they  have  at  last  openly  embraced  a  foreign  superstition 
—  a  diabolic  mimicry  of  Christianity,  which  emanated  from  India, 
has  made  Thibet  its  principal  seat,  prevails  in  China,  and,  widely 
diffused  over  the  whole  middle  of  Asia,  reckons  a  greater  number 
of  followers  than  any  other  religion  on  the  earth. 

Schlegel's  "  Philosophy  of  History  *'  (Chapter  on  the  Chinese). 

194.  Transitional  paragraphs.  When  transitional  para- 
pfi'aphs  are  used  they  serve  to  make  plain  the  logical 
connection  between  the  main  topics  by  linking  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph  with  the  following.  They  are  usually 
short,  unless  it  may  be  in  cases  where  they  are  combined  with 
amplification.     The  following  example  shows  their  use. 

Ex.  [Paragraph  on  the  liberal  attitude  of  England  previously 
shown  toward  her  colonies.] 

[Transitional  paragraph.]  Adhering^  Sir,  as  I  do,  to  this  policy,  as 
trell  as  to  the  reasons  I  have  just  given,  I  think  this  new  project  of  hedg- 
intj-in  jjopulation  to  be  neither  prudent  nor  practicable. 

[Paragrai)h  on  the  topic-sentence,  "  To  impoverish  the  colonies  in 
general,  and  in  particular  to  arrest  the  noble  course  of  their  marine 
enterprises,  would  be  a  more  easy  task."] 

Burke's  "  Speech  on  Conciliation." 

195.  Amplifying  paragraphs.  Paragraphs  of  this  kind  are 
very  conunon,  and  add  much  to  the  clearness  and  charm 
of  writing.     They  enlarge  and  develop  the  thouglit  of  a 


264  COMPOSITION  AND  BHETOEIC 

preceding  paragraph  which  has  been  stated  more  concisely. 
They  are  seen  in  their  perfection  in  argument  and  other 
formal  exposition,  but  are  also  much  needed  in  description 
and  narration.  The  following  illustration  will  suffice  to 
show  the  use  of  such  a  paragraph. 

Ex.    [Paragraph  treating  of   the  general  characteristics  of   the 
hens  owned  by  the  Pyiicheons.] 

[Amphfying  paragraph.]  Chanticleer  himself,  though  stalking  on 
two  stilt-like  legs,  with  the  dignity  of  interminable  descent  in  all  his 
gestures,  was  hardly  bigger  than  an  ordinary  partridge ;  his  two  wives 
were  about  the  size  of  quails;  and  as  for  the  one  chicken,  it  looked 
small  enough  to  be  still  in  the  egg,  and,  at  the  same  time,  sufficiently  old, 
withered,  wizened,  and  experienced,  to  have  been  the  founder  of  the 
antiquated  race.  Instead  of  being  the  youngest  of  the  family,  it  rather 
seemed  to  have  aggregated  into  itself  the  ages,  not  only  of  these  living 
specimens  of  the  breed,  but  of  all  its  forefathers  and  foremothers,  whose 
united  excellences  and  oddities  icere  squeezed  into  its  little  body.  Its 
mother  evidently  regarded  it  as  the  one  chicken  in  the  world,  and  as 
necessary,  in  fact,  to  the  world's  continuance,  or,  at  any  rate,  to  the  equi- 
librium of  the  present  system  of  affairs,  whether  in  church  or  state.  No 
lesser  sense  of  the  infant  fowVs  importance  could  have  justified,  even  in  a 
mother's  eyes,  the  perseverance  with  which  she  rcaiched  over  its  safety, 
ruffling  her  small  person  to  twice  its  proper  size,  and  flying  into  every- 
body's face  that  so  much  as  looked  totvard  her  hopeful  progeny.  No 
lower  estimate  could  have  vindicated  the  indefatigable  zeal  with  ivhich  she 
scratched,  and  her  unscrupulousness  in  digging  up  the  choicest  flower  or 
vegetable,  for  the  sake  of  the  fat  earthworm  at  its  root.  Her  nervous 
cluck,  when  the  chicken  happened  to  be  hidden  in  the  long  grass  or  under 
the  squash  leaves;  her  gentle  croak  of  satisfaction,  while  sure  of  it  beneath 
her  wing;  her  note  of  ill-concealed  fear  and  obstreperous  defiance,  when 
she  saw  her  arch-enemy,  a  neighbor's  cat,  on  the  top  of  a  high  fence  — 
one  or  other  of  these  sounds  was  to  be  heard  at  almost  every  moment  of 
the  day.  By  degrees  the  observer  came  to  feel  nearly  as  much  interest  in 
this  chicken  of  illustrious  race  as  the  mother-hen  did. 

Hawthorne's  "  The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables." 


RELATED  PARAGRAPHS  265 

196.  Use  of  related  paragraphs  in  description.  This  subject 
has  been  already  treated  in  Sections  92-97  and  in  Chapter 
VI.  The  following  quotation  illustrates  a  simple  and 
common  method  of  development  in  the  case  of  description. 

Ex.  [Introductory  paragraph.]  We  have  two  orders  of  animals 
to  take  some  note  of,  which  will  illustrate  this  matter  very  suffi- 
ciently for  us. 

[Paragraph  of  general  statement.]  The  two  orders  of  animals 
are  the  serpent  and  the  bird ;  the  seri>ent,  in  which  the  breath,  or 
spirit,  is  less  than  in  any  other  creature,  and  the  earth-power  great- 
est ;  the  bird,  in  which  the  breath,  or  spirit,  is  more  full  than  in 
any  other  creature,  and  the  earth-power  least. 

[Paragraph  of  amplification.]  We  will  take  the  bird  first.  It  is 
little  more  than  a  drift  of  the  air,  brought  into  form  by  plumes ;  the 
air  is  in  all  its  quills,  it  breathes  through  its  whole  frame  and  flesh, 
and  glows  with  air  in  its  flying,  like  a  blown  flame ;  it  rests  upon  the 
air,  subdues  it,  surpasses  it,  outraces  it;  is  the  air,  conscious  of  itself, 
conquering  itself,  ruling  itself. 

[Paragraph  amplifying  the  last  paragraph.]  Also,  into  the  throat 
of  the  bird  is  given  the  voice  of  the  air.  All  that  in  the  wind  itself 
is  weak,  wild,  useless  in  sweetness,  is  knit  together  in  its  song.  As  we 
may  imagine  the  wild  form  of  the  cloud  closed  into  the  perfect  form 
of  the  bird's  wings,  so  the  wild  voice  of  the  cloud  into  its  ordered  and 
commanded  voice ;  unwearied,  rippling  through  the  clear  heaven 
and  its  gladness,  interpreting  all  intense  passion  through  the  soft 
spring  nights,  bursting  into  acclaim  and  rapture  of  choir  at  day- 
break, or  lisping  and  twittering  among  the  boughs  and  hedges 
through  heat  of  day,  like  little  winds  that  only  make  the  cowslip 
bells  shake,  and  ruffle  the  petals  of  the  wild  rose. 

[Paragraph  amplifying  paragraph  3,  as  the  last  paragraph  did.] 
Also  upon  the  plumes  of  the  bird  are  put  the  colors  of  the  air ;  on 
these  the  gold  of  the  cloud,  that  cannot  be  gathered  by  any  covet- 
ousness ;  the  rubies  of  the  clouds,  that  are  not  the  price  of  Athena, 
but  are  Athena;  the  vermilion  of  the  cloud-bar,  and  the  flame  of 
the  cloud-crest,  and  the  snow  of  the  cloud,  and  its  shadow,  and  the 


266  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

melted  blue  of  the  deep  wells  of  the  sky  —  all  these,  seized  by  the 
creating  spirit  and  woven  by  Athena  herself  into  films  and  threads 
of  plume  ;  with  wave  on  wave  following  and  fading  along  breast,  and 
throat,  and  opened  wings,  infinite  as  the  dividing  of  the  foam  and  the 
sifting  of  the  sea-sand ;  —  even  the  white  down  of  the  cloud  seeming 
to  flutter  up  between  the  stronger  plumes,  seen,  but  too  soft  for  touch. 
[Summarizing  paragraph.]  The  Spirit  of  the  Air  is  put  into, 
and  upon,  this  created  form;  and  it  becomes  through  twenty  cen- 
turies the  symbol  of  divine  help,  descending,  as  the  fire,  to  speak, 
but  as  the  dove,  to  bless.  r.^skin's  "  The  Queen  of  the  Air." 

197.  Use  of  related  paragraphs  in  narration.  This  subject 
was  discussed  in  Sections  98-99  and  in  Chapter  VII.  The 
foUowing  quotation  should  be  carefully  studied  for  the 
paragraph  development  shown. 

Ex.  [Introductory  paragraph.]  It  was  about  this  time  that  an 
incident  took  place,  which,  although  it  rests  only  on  tradition  in 
families  of  the  name  of  Bruce,  is  rendered  probable  by  the  man- 
ners of  the  times. 

After  receiving  the  last  unpleasing  intelligence  from  Scotland, 
Bruce  was  lying  one  morning  on  his  wretched  bed,  and  deliberating 
with  himself  whether  he  had  not  better  resign  all  thoughts  of  again 
attempting  to  obtain  the  Scottish  crown,  and  dismissing  his  followers, 
transport  himself  and  his  brothers  to  the  Holy  Land,  and  spend  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  fighting  against  the  Saracens.  By  this  he  thought, 
perhaps,  he  might  deserve  the  forgiveness  of  Heaven  for  the  great  sin 
of  stabbing  Comyn  in  the  church  at  Dumfries.  But  then,  on  the 
other  hand,  he  thought  it  w^ould  be  both  criminal  and  cowardly  to 
give  up  his  attempts  to  restore  freedom  to  Scotland,  while  there  yet 
remained  the  least  chance  of  his  being  successful. 

While  he  was  divided  betwixt  these  reflections,  and  doubtful  of 
what  he  should  do,  Bruce  was  looking  upward  to  the  roof  of  the 
cabin  in  which  he  lay ;  and  his  eye  was  attracted  by  a  spider,  which, 
hanging  at  the  end  of  a  long  thread  of  its  own  spinning,  Mas  endeav- 
oring, as  is  the  fashion  of  that  creature,  to  swing  itself  from  one 


HKLATED   I'AliAGliAPHS  267 

l»t-aiii  ill  {he  hh.I  U>  aiiolli.  r,  lor  thr  purposf!  of  fixing  Uu'  iiiu'  on 
which  it  meant  to  atretcli  its  web.  The  insect  made  the  attempt 
again  and  again  without  success;  and  at  length  Bruce  counted  that 
it  had  tried  to  carry  its  point  six  times,  and  been  as  often  unable 
t(3  do  80.  It  came  into  his  head  that  he  had  himself  fought  just  six 
l)attles  against  the  English  and  their  allies,  and  that  the  poor  per- 
severing spider  was  exactly  in  the  same  situation  with  himself, 
having  made  as  many  trials,  and  been  as  often  disappointed  in  what 
it  aimed  at. 

[Transitional  and  amplifying  paragraph.]  "Now,"  thought 
Bruce,  "  as  I  have  no  means  of  knowing  what  is  best  to  be  done,  I 
will  be  guided  by  the  luck  which  shall  attend  this  spider.  If  the 
insect  shall  make  another  effort  to  fix  its  thread,  and  shall  be  success- 
ful, I  will  venture  a  seventh  time  to  try  my  fortune  in  Scotland  ;  but 
if  the  spider  shall  fail  I  will  go  to  the  wars  in  Palestine  and  never 
return  to  my  native  country  more." 

While  Bruce  was  forming  this  resolution,  the  spider  made  another 
exertion  with  all  the  force  it  could  muster,  and  fairly  succeeded  in 
fastening  its  thread  to  the  beam  which  it  had  so  oft«n  in  vain 
attempted  to  reach.  Bruce,  seeing  the  success  of  the  spider,  resolved 
to  try  his  own  fortune ;  and  as  he  had  never  before  gained  a  victory, 
so  he  never  afterward  suffered  any  great  check  or  defeat. 

[Concluding  paragraph.]  I  have  often  met  with  people  of  the 
name  of  Bruce  so  completely  persuaded  of  the  truth  of  this  story  that 
they  wouM  not  on  any  account  kill  a  spider  ;  because  it  was  that 
insect  which  had  shown  the  example  of  perseverance  and  given  a 
signal  of  good  luck  to  their  great  namesake. 

Scott's  "Talas  of  a  Grandfather." 

198.  Use  of  related  paragraphs  in  exposition.  Related  para- 
graphs ill  exposition  usually  show  the  relation  of  cause 
and  effect,  and  are  likely  to  have  an  introduction  and  a 
conclusion. 

The  following  quotation  shows  the  use  of  related  para- 
graphs in  exposition  modified  by  nai'ration. 


268  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Ex.  [Introductory  paragraph.]  It  is  strange  that  I  but  dimly 
recollect  the  following  morning ;  I  fancy  we  must  have  gone  to  some 
sort  of  church  or  other ;  and  certainly  part  of  the  day  went  in  admir- 
ing the  bow- windows  projecting  into  the  clean  streets.  None  of  us 
seemed  to  have  thought  the  Alps  would  be  visible  without  profane 
exertion  in  climbing  hills.  We  dined  at  four,  as  usual,  and  the 
evening  being  entirely  fine,  went  to  walk,  all  of  us  —  my  father  and 
mother  and  Mary  and  I. 

[Amplifying  j)aragraph.]  We  must  have  still  spent  some  time  in 
town-seeing,  for  it  was  drawing  towards  sunset  when  we  got  up  to 
some  sort  of  garden  promenade  —  west  of  the  town,  I  believe ;  and 
high  above  the  Rhine,  so  as  to  command  the  open  country  across  it 
to  south  and  west.  At  which  open  country  of  low  undulation,  far 
into  blue,  —  gazing  as  at  one  of  our  own  distances  from  Malvern  of 
Worcestershire,  or  Dorking  of  Kent, — suddenly  —  behold  —  beyond. 

[Amplifying  paragraph.]  There  was  no  thought  in  any  of  us  for 
a  moment  of  their  being  clouds.  They  were  as  clear  as  crystal, 
sharp  on  the  pure  horizon  sky,  and  already  tinged  with  rose  by  the 
sinking  sun.  Infinitely  beyond  all  that  we  had  ever  dreamed,  — the 
seen  walls  of  lost  Eden  could  not  have  been  more  beautiful  to  us ; 
not  more  awful,  round  heaven,  the  walls  of  sacred  Death. 

[Amplifying  paragraph.]  It  is  not  possible  to  imagine,  in  any 
time  of  the  world,  a  more  blessed  entrance  into  life,  for  a  child  of 
such  a  temperament  as  mine.  True,  the  temperament  belonged  to 
the  age  :  a  very  few  years,  —  within  the  hundred,  —  before  that,  no 
child  could  have  been  born  to  care  for  the  mountains,  or  for  the 
men  that  lived  among  them,  in  that  way.  TiU  Rousseau's  time, 
there  had  been  no  "  sentimental "  love  of  'nature ;  and  till  Scott's, 
no  such  apprehensive  love  of  ''  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  men,"  not 
in  the  soul  merely,  but  in  the  flesh.  St.  Bernard  of  La  Fontaine, 
looking  out  to  Mont  Blanc,  with  his  child's  eyes,  sees  above  Mont 
Blanc  the  Madonna ;  St.  Bernard  of  Talloires,  not  the  Lake  of 
Annecy  but  the  dead  between  Martigny  and  Aosta.  But  for  me,  the 
Alps  and  their  people  were  alike  beautiful  in  their  snow  and  their' 
humanity ;  and  I  wanted,  neither  for  them  nor  myself,  sight  of  any 
throne  in  heaven  but  the  rocks,  or  of  any  spirits  in  heaven  but  the 
clouds. 


RELATED  PARAGRAPHS  269 

[Concluding  paragraph.]  Thus,  in  perfect  health  of  life  and  fire 
of  heart,  not  wanting  to  be  anything  but  the  boy  I  was,  not  wanting 
to  have  anything  more  than  I  had,  knowing  of  sorrow  only  just  so 
much  as  to  make  life  serious  to  me,  not  enough  to  slacken  in  the 
least  its  sinews,  and  with  so  much  of  science  mixed  with  feeling  as 
to  make  the  sight  of  the  Alps  not  only  the  revelation  of  the  beauty 
of  the  earth,  but  the  opening  of  the  first  page  of  its  volume,  —  I 
went  down  that  evening  from  the  garden-terrace  of  Schaff-liausen 
with  my  destiny  fixed  in  all  of  it  that  was  to  be  sacred  and  useful. 
To  that  terrace,  and  the  shore  of  the  lake  of  Geneva,  my  heart  and 
faith  return  to  this  day,  in  every  impulse  that  is  yet  nobly  alive  in 
them,  and  every  thought  that  has  in  it  help  or  peace. 

Ruskin's  "PrsBterita." 

EXERCISE 
I 

Bring  to  class  three  selections  in  which  no  introductory 
paragraphs  are  needed. 

II 

Bring  to  class  three  selections  in  which  brief  concluding 
paragraphs  are  effectively  used. 

in 

Write  several  related  paragraphs  on  each  of  the  follow- 
ing subjects,  indicating  in  brackets  before  each  paragraph 
the  purpose  of  that  paragraph : 

1.  A  Barnyard  Scene. 

2.  A  Lumber  Camp. 

3.  A  Rolling  Prairie. 

4.  A  Cotton  Field. 

5.  A  Cranberry  Bog. 


270  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

IV 

Write  a  paper  on  each  of  the  following  subjects,  indi- 
cating in  brackets  before  eacli  paragraph  the  purpose  of 
that  paragraph : 

1.  A  "  Mardi  Gras  "  Festival. 

2.  A  Scene  at  the  Stock  Exchange. 

3.  A  Duel  in  the  Animal  World. 

4.  A  Day  in  Yellowstone  Park. 

5.  Shooting  the  Rapids. 


Write  a  paper  on  07ie  of  the  following  subjects,  using,  if 
possible,  introductory,  amplifying,  transitional,  and  con- 
cluding paragraphs. 

1.  Secret  Societies  in  High  Schools  and  Academies  should  be 
Forbidden. 

2.  Monday  is  a  More  Desirable  Holiday  than  Saturday. 

3.  Interscholastic  Competition  in  Athletics  is  Desirable. 

SUMMARY 

199.  Introductory  and  concluding  paragraphs  are  often 
not  needed  at  all,  especially  in  description  and  narration. 
When  used  they  should  be  brief  and  to  the  point.  The 
object  of  introductory  paragraphs  is  to  state  clearly  the 
subject  that  is  to  be  treated,  or  to  give  the  author's  point 
of  view.  The  concluding  paragraphs  should  sum  up  or 
empliasize  the  main  thought  of  the  related  paragraphs. 

Transitional  paragraphs  serve  to  make  plain  the  logical 
connection  between  the  main  topics,  by  linking  the  preced- 
ing paragraph  with  the  following  one.  They  are  short, 
unless  combined  with  amplification. 


RELATED  rAKAGRAFUS  271 

Amplifying  paragraphs  enlarge  and  develop  the  thought 
of  a  preceding  paragraph  which  has  been  more  concisely- 
stated.     They  are  used  in  all  forms  of  writing. 

These  distinct  kinds  of  paragraphs  are  most  clearly 
illustrated  in  exposition.  Their  modifications  in  descrip- 
tion and  narration  are  harder  to  classify,  but  no  less 
important  to  study. 


CHAPTER   XIV 
THE   SENTENCE 

The  turn  of  a  sentence  has  decided  the  fate  of  many  a  friendship,  and  for 
aught  we  know  the  fate  of  many  a  kingdom.  —  Jeremy  Bentham. 

200.  Nature  and  purpose  of  the  sentence.  The  sentence  is 
the  expression  of  a  complete  thought  in  words.  It  is  the 
unit  of  study  in  grammar  (see  Chapter  I),  in  that  words 
have  constructions  only  because  of  their  relations  in  the 
sentence.  It  is  also  a  unit  of  expression  in  all  kinds  of 
writing.  The  pupil  who  cannot  express  himself  clearly 
and  well  in  single  sentences  is  not  prepared  to  express  him- 
self well  in  single  or  related  paragraphs.  For  this  reason 
the  sentence  deserves  detailed  study. 

201.  Kinds  of  sentences.  The  grammatical  classification 
of  sentences  was  given  on  pages  41  and  42.  For  purposes 
of  rhetorical  classification,  sentences  are  also  divided 
according  to  their  construction  into  periodic,  loose,  and 
balanced  sentences. 

1.  A  periodic  sentence  is  one  that  holds  the  thought 
in  suspense  until  the  close  of  the  sentence. 

Ex.  Having  been  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Jamaica,  during 
one  of  his  voyages,  and  reduced  to  the  verge  of  starva- 
tion by  the  want  of  provisions  which  the  natives  refused 
to  supply,  Columbus  took  advantage  of  their  ignorance  of 
astronomy. 

272 


THE  SENTENCE  273 

2.  A  loose  sentence  is  so  constructed  that  it  may  be 
brought  to  a  close  in  two  or  more  places  and  in  each 
case  make  complete  sense. 

Ex.  AVe  made  our  way  up  the  mountain,  |  riding  in  the  shade 
of  lofty  birches,  |  occasionally  crossing  the  path  of 
some  clear  mountain  stream,  |  but  hearing  no  human 
voice  I  and  seldom  even  the  chirp  of  bird  or  insect. 

3.  A  balanced  sentence  is  made  up  of  two  members 
which  are  similar  in  form,  but  often  contrasted  in  meaning. 

Ex.  1.    The  character  of  Milton  was  peculiarly  distinguished 
by  loftiness  of  thought ;  that  of  Dante  by  intensity 
of  feeling. 
2.    Worth  makes  the  man ;  the  want  of  it,  the  fellow. 

202.  Effect  of  different  kinds  of  sentences.  The  natural 
tendency  is  to  write  loose  sentences,  and  in  an  easy,  some- 
what familiar  style  they  may  be  entirely  appropriate.  A 
large  number  of  them,  however,  gives  an  impression  of 
carelessness  and  lack  of  finish.  Periodic  sentences  add 
strength  and  dignity  to  the  writing,  but  if  used  exclu- 
sively make  the  style  stiff  and  formal.  Balanced  sentences 
are  not  usually  suitable  in  description  or  narration,  but 
are  well  adapted  to  satiric  writing  or  to  essays  in  which 
persons  or  things  are  contrasted.  Short  sentences  give 
animation  to  the  style,  but  a  constant  use  of  them  becomes 
tiresome  and  destroys  smoothness  of  expression.  The  chief 
merit  of  the  long  sentence  is  that  it  brings  a  large  number 
of  related  particulars  into  one  view,  in  which  their  rela- 
tions are  shown  more  clearly  or  more  economically  than 
by  the  use  of  short  sentences. 

203.  Value  of  variety  in  sentence  structure.  The  mind  tires 
of  any  one  style  of  construction  if  it  is  carried  to  excess ; 


274  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

and  each  sentence  should  be  adapted  to  its  place  and  pur- 
pose in  the  paragraph  of  which  it  is  a  vital  part.  For 
these  two  reasons  loose  and  periodic,  short  and  long  sen- 
tences should  be  mingled  in  the  composition. 

EXERCISE 

I 

Bring  to  class  three  illustrations  of  periodic  sentences, 
and  three  illustrations  of  balanced  sentences. 

II 

Bring  to  class  five  illustrations  of  loose  sentences  appro- 
priately used  and  five  illustrations  of  loose  sentences 
which  need  reconstruction. 

in 
Classify  the  following  sentences  according  to  their  gram- 
matical and  rhetorical  construction,  and  change  the  loose 
sentences  to  the  periodic  form : 

1.  There  is  that  maketh  himself  rich,  yet  hath  nothing;  there 
is  that  maketh  himself  poor,  yet  hath  great  riches. 

2.  The  great  burdens  he  had  borne,  the  terrible  anxieties  and 
perplexities  that  had  poisoned  his  life,  and  the  peaceful  scenes  he 
had  forever  left  behind,  swept  across  his  memory. 

3.  A  man  may  be  loyal  to  his  government,  and  yet  oppose  the 
peculiar  principles  and  methods  of  the  administration. 

4.  He  paced  up  and  down  the  walk,  forgetful  of  everything 
around  him,  and  intent  only  on  some  subject  that  absorbed  his 
mind,  his  hands  behind  him,  his  hat  and  coat  off,  and  his  tall  form 
bent  forward. 

5.  The  sad  sincerity,  the  fine  insight,  and  the  amazing  vividness 
and  picturesque  felicity  of  the  style  make  the  "  Reminiscences "  a 
remarkable  book. 


THE  SENTENCE  275 

6.  "  /  cannot  do  it  "  never  accomplished  anything ;  "  /  will  try  " 
has  wrought  wonders. 

7.  History  is  a  mighty  drama,  enacted  upon  the  theatre  of  time, 
with  suns  for  lamps,  and  eternity  for  a  background. 

8.  If  you  look  about  you  and  consider  the  lives  of  others  as  well 
as  your  own  :  if  you  think  how  few  are  born  with  honor,  and  how 
many  die  without  name  or  children  ;  how  little  beauty  we  see,  and 
how  few  friends  we  hear  of;  how  many  diseases,  and  how  much 
poverty  there  is  in  the  world,  —  you  will  fall  down  upon  your  knees, 
and,  instead  of  repining  at  your  afflictions,  will  admire  so  many 
blessings  which  you  have  received  at  the  hand  of  God. 

9.  There  in  the  west  was  the  Great  Pyramid,  hiding  the  sun  from 
view,  and  utilizing  the  last  departing  rays  to  cast  a  great  sharp  shadow- 
eastward  across  the  necropolis  of  the  desert,  just  as  it  has  done  ever 
since  the  slaves  of  Cheops  placed  the  last  stone  upon  its  apex. 

10.  It  looks  rather  odd  to  see  civilized  people  sitting  in  a  parlor, 
surrounded  by  every  possible  luxury  wealth  can  bring  except  fire, 
wrapped  in  furs  and  rugs,  with  blue  noses  and  chattering  teeth, 
when  coal  is  cheap  and  the  mountains  are  covered  with  timber. 

11.  He  philosophically  developed  the  rise  of  Puritanism  and  the 
causes  of  the  Pilgrim  emigration,  and  came  down  to  the  Mayflower, 
to  Miles  and  Rose  Standish,  to  the  landing  at  Plymouth,  the  severity 
of  the  winter,  the  famine  and  the  sickness,  and  the  many  deaths  — 
fifty  out  of  a  hundred,  including  the  beautiful  Rose  Standish. 

12.  The  shores  are  still  further  diversified  by  bluffs  and  rocky 
points,  by  tongues  of  white  sand  shooting  out  into  Long  Island 
Sound,  by  pretty  ponds  and  odd  mills,  and  by  orchards  and  meadows 
coming  down  to  the  water's  edge. 

13.  As  you  gaze  down  upon  these  simple  homes  from  the 
Acropolis  in  the  earliest  dawn  of  a  summer  morning  and  see  the 
inmates,  roused  from  a  night's  rest,  light  a  little  fire  in  the  open  air 
and  prepare  their  frugal  meal,  —  as  you  see  how  pathetically  these 
little  houses  seem  to  cling  like  suppliants  about  the  knees  of  the 
marble-crowned,  world-famous  Rock  of  Athens,  it  takes  little  fancy 
to  imagine  that  these  homes  of  the  poor  have  crept  for  protection 
beneath  the  mighty  shadow  of  the  stronghold  of  liberty  in  the  city's 
glorious  past. 


276  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

IV 

Combine  each  of  these  groups  of  short  sentences  into 
one  well-constructed  sentence: 

1.  Novels,  as  a  class,  are  injurious  to  many  young  people.  They 
destroy  the  taste  for  more  solid  reading.  They  cultivate  the  emo- 
tions to  an  undue  extent.     They  convey  false  impressions  of  life. 

2.  This  great  cave  is  really  a  series  of  chambers.  It  is  known  as 
the  Wind  Cave.  It  rivals  the  Mammoth  Cave  of  Kentucky.  The 
entrance  is  at  a  point  about  twelve  miles  southeast  of  the  town  of 
Custer  in  South  Dakota. 

3.  Fishing  from  a  kite  has  two  advantages.  The  fisherman  may 
stand  on  shore  while  his  bait  is  dropped  far  out  at  sea.  Timid  fish 
are  not  frightened  by  the  shadow  of  the  pole  and  line. 

4.  Wedgwood  tea-sets  found  their  way  to  America  early.  It  was 
as  early  as  1750.  They  were  called  "  Queen's  ware."  The  name 
was  given  in  honor  of  Queen  Charlotte. 

5.  Some  valuable  works  of  ancient  art  have  recently  been  dis- 
covered. They  were  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  They  were 
found  near  the  island  of  Cythera.  They  are  statues  of  exquisite 
beauty.     They  belong  to  the  best  period  of  Greek  sculpture. 


Combine  each  of  the  following  groups  of  sentences  into 
three  or  four  longer  sentences : 

1.  A  dog  crossed  a  rivulet.  He  had  a  piece  of  meat  in  his 
mouth.  He  saw  his  own  shadow  represented  in  the  clear  mirror  of 
the  stream.  He  believed  it  to  be  another  dog.  This  dog  was  also 
carrying  a  piece  of  meat.  The  real  dog  could  not  forbear  catching 
at  this  supposed  piece  of  meat.  He  did  not  get  anything  by  his 
greedy  design.  He  dropped  the  piece  of  meat  which  he  had  in  his 
mouth.  It  sank  to  the  bottom.  It  was  irrecoverably  lost.  We 
daily  see  men  venture  their  property  in  wild  and  shadowy  specula- 
tions. We  then  see  exemplified  the  moral  of  this  fable.  The  moral 
is,  "  Covet  all,  lose  all." 


,    THE  SENTENCE  211 

2.  The  first  part  of  the  Rangoon's  voyage  was  accomplished 
under  excellent  conditions.  The  weather  was  moderate.  All  the 
lower  portion  of  the  immense  Bay  of  Bengal  was  favorable  to  the 
steamer's  progress.  They  kept  pretty  close  to  the  coast.  The 
savage  Papuans  of  the  island  did  not  show  themselves.  They  are 
beings  of  the  lowest  grade  of  humanity.  The  panoramic  develop- 
ment of  the  island  was  superb. 

3.  Piedmont,  near  Torteval,  is  one  of  the  three  corners  of  the 
Island  of  Guernsey.  At  the  extremity  of  the  cape  there  rises  a  high 
turfy  hill,  which  looks  over  the  sea.  The  height  is  a  lonely  place; 
all  the  more  lonely  from  there  being  one  solitary  house  there. 
This  house  adds  a  sense  of  terror  to  that  of  solitude.  It  is  popularly 
believed  to  be  haunted.  Haunted  or  not,  its  aspect  is  singular. 
Built  of  granite  and  rising  only  one  story  high,  it  stands  in  the 
midst  of  the  grassy  solitude. 

4.  One  [object],  which  was  almost  imperceptible  in  the  wide 
movement  of  the  waters,  was  a  sailing  boat.  In  this  was  a  man. 
It  was  the  sloop.  The  other,  black,  motionless,  colossal,  rose  above 
the  waves,  a  singular  form.  Two  tall  pillars  issuing  from  the  sea 
bore  aloft  a  cross-beam  which  was  like  a  bridge  between  them. 
This  bridge,  so  singular  in  shape  that  it  was  impossible  to  imagine 
what  it  was  from  a  distance,  touched  each  of  the  two  pillars.  It 
resembled  a  vast  portal.  Of  what  use  could  such  an  erection  be  in 
that  open  plain,  the  sea,  which  stretched  around  it  far  and  wide? 
Its  wild  outline  stood  well  defined  against  the  clear  sky. 

The  two  perpendicular  forms  were  the  Douvres.  The  huge  mass 
held  fast  between  them,  like  an  architrave  between  two  pillars,  was 
the  wreck  of  the  Durande. 

VI 

Divide  each  of  the  foUowing  groups  of  sentences  into 
shorter  sentences,  making  the  expression  as  effective  as 
possible : 

1.  Cheerfulness  is  like  sunshine  which  sheds  its  brightness  on 
everything  around;  and  no  trait  of  character  is  more  valuable  or 
more  productive  of  happiness,  because  it  lightens  burdens,  makes 


278  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

friends,  and  promotes  health.  It  can  be  cultivated,  and  it  must  be 
cultivated,  although  some  people  have  it  naturally,  and  others  are 
habitually  croakers. 

2.  I  was  once  an  enlisted  soldier,  under  the  three  months'  call, 
and  for  three  days  was  in  camp  at  Hartford,  sleeping  in  tents, 
rising  at  the  tap  of  the  drum,  going  through  the  routine  of  drill, 
and  thrice  daily  marching  to  the  Clinton  House  for  rations,  when 
the  word  came  from  Washington  that  no  more  three  months'  men 
were  wanted  in  front,  but  three  years',  or  for  the  war,  it  having  at 
last  penetrated  the  brains  of  the  men  in  authority  that  the  contest 
was  no  boy's  play  of  two  or  three  months,  but  man's  work  for  an 
indefinite  period. 

3.  He  endeavored  to  calm  the  apprehensions  of  his  mother,  and 
to  assure  her  that  there  was  no  truth  in  all  the  rumors  she  had 
heard  ;  she  looked  at  him  dubiously  and  shook  her  head ;  but  find- 
ing his  determination  was  not  to  be  shaken,  she  brought  him  a 
little  thick  Dutch  Bible,  with  brass  clasps,  to  take  with  him  as  a 
sword  wherewith  to  fight  the  powers  of  darkness;  and,  lest  that 
might  not  be  sufficient,  the  housekeeper  gave  him  the  Heidelberg- 
catechism,  by  way  of  dagger. 

4.  I  recollect,  with  a  half-painful,  half -amusing  distinctness  all 
the  little  incidents  of  the  dreadful  scene  ;  how  I  found  myself  stand- 
ing in  an  upper  chamber  of  a  gloomy  brick  house,  book  in  hand,  — 
it  was  a  thin  volume,  with  a  tea-green  paper  cover  and  a  red  roan 
back,  —  before  an  awful  being,  who  put  questions  to  me  which,  for 
all  that  I  could  understand  of  them,  might  as  well  have  been 
couched  in  CcM||^^|i|BHhB^rit ;  how,  when  asked  about  govern- 
ing, I  answereSP"  I^^qSPPWiow,"  and  when  about  agreeing,  "I 
can't  tell,"  until  at  last,  in  despair,  I  said  nothing,  and  choked 
down  my  taars,  wondering,  in  a  dazed,  dumb  fashion,  whether  all 
this  was  part  and  parcel  of  that  total  depravity  of  the  human  heart 
of  which  I  had  heard  so  much ;  how  then  the  being  —  to  whom  I 
apply  no  epithet,  for,  poor  creature,  he  thought  he  was  doing  God's 
service  —  said  to  me,  in  a  terrible  voice,  "You  are  a  stupid,  idle 
boy,  sir,  and  have  neglected  your  task." 


THE  SENTENCE  279 

204.  Essentials  of  a  good  sentence.  The  chief  essentials  of 
the  good  sentence  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  longer  units 
of  writing,  the  theme  and  the  paragraph ;  namely,  unity, 
coherence,  and  emphasis.  Euphony  is  also  of  great 
importance. 

205.  Unity.  Since  the  sentence  is  the  expression  of  a 
single  complete  thought,  the  first  essential  of  the  sentence 
is  that  it  shall  show  this  oneness  of  thought.  The  chief 
hindrances  to  securing  unity  in  the  sentence  are:  (1) 
Making  too  short  or  too  long  sentences;  (2)  Attempting 
to  use  subordinate  clauses  as  sentences ;  and  (3)  Writing 
what  are  called  "run-on"  sentences,  where  several  unre- 
lated thoughts  are  crowded  into  a  single  sentence.  This 
last  form  of  sentence  is  often  designated  as  the  "comma 
blunder,"  or  "the  house-that-Jack-built"  sentence.  By 
careful  observance  of  the  following  rules,  together  with 
constant  practice,  the  student  will  be  materially  aided  in 
writing  unified  sentences. 

1.  Avoid  changing  the  point  of  view. 

Ex.  The  vessel  made  for  the  shore,  and  the  passengers  soon 
crowded  into  the  boats,  and  the  beach  was  reached  in 
safety,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  island  received  them 
with  the  utmost  kindness. 

Better  Form.  The  vessel  having  made  for  the  shore,  the 
passengers  soon  crowded  into  the  boats  and  safely 
reached  the  beach,  where  they  were  received  with  the 
utmost  kindness  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  island. 

2.  Avoid  a  loose  arrangement  of  relative  clauses. 

Ex.  1.  We  had  no  lack  of  entertainment  during  the  time 
which  we  spent  in  the  city,  which  seems  very  gay 
and  attractive. 


280  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Better  Form.  We  had  no  lack  of  entertainment  during 
the  time  which  we  spent  in  the  gay  and  attractive 
city. 

Ex.  2.    His  is  a  style  abounding  in  strength  and  vivacity 

and  which  never  transgresses  the  bounds  of  literary 

propriety. 
Better  Form.    His  is  a   style   abounding  in  strength  and 

vivacity  and   never   transgressing   the   bounds   of 

literary  propriety ;  or 

His  is  a  style  which  abounds  in  strength   and 

vivacity  and  which  never  transgresses  the  bounds 

of  literary  propriety. 

3.  Bo  not  crowd  into  the  same  sentence  ideas  which  have 
no  close  connection.  Be  particularly  careful  to  avoid  the 
''  comma  blunder." 

Ex.  1.    As  we  drove  along,  we  met  a  young  lady  in  full  lawn- 
tennis  costume,  and  passed  a  house   where  there 
was  a  handsome  flower-garden  and  where  Mr.  Gray 
lives. 
2.    I  have  a  St.  Bernard  dog,  he  is  very  intelligent. 

4.  Avoid  a  frequent  use  of  parentheses^  which  are  com- 
monly signs  of  careless  composition. 

Ex.  One  day  last  week  (Wednesday,  I  think)  we  went 
hunting. 

In  the  following  sentence  the  parenthesis  is  allowable, 
but  a  division  into  two  sentences  would  be  a  better 
arrangement : 

Ex.  Then  said  the  Shepherds,  "  From  that  stile  there  goes  a 
path  that  leads  directly  to  Doubting-Castle,  which  is 
kept  by  Giant  Despair ;  and  these  men  (pointing  to 
them  among  the  tombs)  came  once  on  pilgrimage,  as 
you  do  now,  even  until  they  came  to  that  same  stile." 


THE  SENTENCE  281 

5.  When  the  expression  of  a  thought  is  apparently  com- 
plete, do  not  '^  tack  on  "  an  additional  clause  at  the  end.. 

Ex.    There  is  to  be  a  wedding  next  week,  to  which  we  are 
all  to  be  invited  ;  or,  at  least,  so  I  hear. 

6.  Practice  writing  periodic  sentences  (see  §  201,  1). 

EXERCISE 

I 

Bring  to  class  ten  illustrations  of  sentences  that  lack 
unity.  These  may  be  taken  from  books  or  quoted  from 
spoken  language. 

II 

Correct  the  following  sentences  so  as  to  secure  unity 
of  thought  and  form: 

1.  There  are  eighteen  hundred  figures  on  the  front  of  the 
cathedral,  and  its  two  steeples  are  unequal  in  height. 

2.  Many  a  man  (and  good  ones,  too)  goes  the  downward  way, 
for  want  of  a  helping  hand. 

3.  After  we  came  to  anchor,  they  put  me  on  shore,  where  I  was 
welcomed  by  all  my  friends,  who  received  me  with  the  greatest 
kindness. 

4.  I  saw  a  chair  which  once  belonged  to  James  K.  Polk  —  one 
of  the  presidents,  yo'i  know. 

5.  His  companion  was  a  short,  stout  man,  with  a  gray  beard 
and  bushy  hair,  and  as  they  approached  the  top,  Rip  heard  noises 
like  peals  of  thunder. 

6.  Washington  died  of  the  sore  throat,  and  was  six  feet  three 
inches  tall. 

7.  They  told  stories  and  read  newspapers  that  were  months  old, 
that  were  left  by  some  traveler  on  his  way  to  the  Catskills,  which 
were  then  and  are  now  noted  for  their  scenery. 

8.  Can  you  not  see  that  one  can  do  whatever  he  sets  his  heart 
upon  doing  —  if  it  is  possible? 


282  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

9.    There  are  people  (and  their  name  is  legion)  who  have  no 
aim  in  life  but  to  have  a  good  time. 

10.  A  violent  storm  drove  me  to  the  coast  of  Sardinia,  which 
is  free  from  all  poisonous  herbs  except  one,  which  resembles  parsley 
and  causes  those  who  eat  it  to  die  of  laughing. 

11.  Dr.  Kane  described  the  Arctic  silence  as  sometimes  almost 
dreadful;  and  one  day  at  dinner,  while  Thackeray  was  quietly 
smoking  and  Kane  was  fresh  from  his  travels,  he  told  them  a  story 
of  a  sailor  reading  "  Pendennis." 

12.  People  have  the  most  disagreeable  habit  (when  I  wear  this 
hat)  of  staring  at  me. 

13.  They  fly  swiftly  and  mostly  by  day,  and  their  food  consists 
of  seeds  and  berries  and  small  shellfish. 

14.  The  most  important  rules,  definitions,  and  observations, 
and  which  are  therefore  the  most  proper  to  be  committed  to  memory, 
are  printed  in  large  type. 

15.  "The  Captain's  Well"  is  owned  by  Jacob  Huntington, 
who  has  already  erected  on  the  main  street  of  Amesbury  a  fine 
bronze  statue  of  Josiah  Bartlett,  who  has  embellished  the  history 
of  New  Hampshire  and  whose  name  shines  first  among  the  heroes 
who  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

16.  I  could  not  go,  but  the  girls  went,  and  when  the  party  was 
over,  it  was  moonlight,  and  so  the  ride  home  was  very  delightful. 

17.  You  will  probably  be  at  home  by  New  Year's,  I  have  n't  a 
doubt. 

18.  He  found  the  roof  fallen  in,  and  there  was  a  skinny  dog 
running  about  that  looked  like  Wolf,  and  he  called  him  by  name, 
but  the  dog  turned  around  and  showed  his  teeth. 

19.  His  death  was  due  to  nervous  prostration,  and  he  had 
reached  the  age  of  forty-seven  years. 

20.  We  stopped  at  Dijon,  and  though  the  town  has  been  ran- 
sacked many  times,  it  still  shows  its  antiquity. 

21.  While  Mary  remained  with  us,  our  family  expenses  doubled, 
our  food  disappeared  in  the  most  marvelous  manner,  the  dishes  that 
she  broke  were  numerous,  and  I  finally  lost  patience. 

22.  We  met  a  man  who  was  riding  horseback  on  the  road  which 
leads  through  the  woods. 


THE  SENTENCE  283 

23.  The  very  day  that  John  left  us  and  I  finished  reading 
"Dombey  and  Son,"  a  storm  came  on,  which  wet  the  hay  that 
father  had  been  so  careful  about. 

24.  Their  eldest  son  studied  for  the  ministry,  but  he  has  never 
preached,  that  I  know  of. 

25.  The  horses  stood  still,  but  we  got  out,  and  the  snow  was 
coming  down  very  fast,  so  the  path  was  difficult  to  find,  but  home 
was  at  last  reached. 

26.  Barnes  continued  (so  wicked  a  wretch  was  he)  to  poison 
their  minds  against  the  innocent  lad. 

27.  The  first  appearance  of  the  hermitess  in  Westchester  County, 
New  York  State  —  for  her  cave  was  in  this  county  —  was  at  the 
house  of  my  mother's  grandfather,  who  was  a  deacon  in  the 
Presbyterian  church. 

28.  The  basement  and  nearly  all  of  the  first  floor  are  completed, 
as  far  as  the  exterior  goes. 

29.  But  they  were  quite  as  pleased  with  one  another  (and  per- 
haps even  more  so)  as  though  they  had  each  uttered  the  most 
remarkable  witticisms. 

30.  The  doctor  was  called,  and  the  sick  man  rallied,  but  as  night 
came  on,  the  storm  increased,  and  no  word  came  from  the  fort. 

206.  Coherence.  Coherence  in  the  sentence  requires  that 
the  grammatical  construction  and  the  logical  arrangement 
of  the  words  be  unmistakably  clear.  The  chief  hindrances 
to  securing  coherence  in  the  sentence  are :  (1)  Careless  use 
of  participial  phrases  and  of  pronouns,  and  (2)  Separation  of 
parts  of  the  sentence  which  are  very  closely  associated  in 
thought.  Study  carefully  the  following  directions  and 
examples  for  securing  coherence  in  the  sentence. 

1.  Place  all  words^  phrases^  or  clauses  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  word  or  words  which  they  wodify. 

Ex.  1.    He  went  to  town,  driving  a  flock  of  sheep,  on  horseback. 
Better.    He  went  to  town,  on  horseback^  driving  a  flock  of 
sheep. 


284  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Note.  —  Special  care  should  be  taken  to  place  adverbs  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  words  which  they  modify. 

Ex.  2.  I  only  saw  two  birds. 
Better.    I  saw  only  two  birds. 

2.  Avoid  a  careless  use  of  participial  phrases.  With  the 
exception  of  a  participle  used  as  nominative  absolute, 
every  participle  must  modify  some  special  word. 

Ex.    Being  exceedingly  fond  of  birds,  an  aviary  is  always  to  be 

found  within  his  grounds. 
Better.    Being  exceedingly  fond  of   birds,  he    always    had 

an  aviary  in  his  grounds. 

3.  Place  every  pronoun  so  that  its  antecedent  cannot  he 
mistaken. 

Ex.  1 .    The  figs  were  in  wooden  boxes,  which  we  ate. 
Better.    The  fgs  ivhich  we  ate  were  in  wooden  boxes. 

Ex.  2.   James  told  John  that  his  horse  had  run  away. 
Better.    James  said  to  John,  "Your  horse  has  run  away." 

4.  Avoid  throwing  a  word.,  a  phrase.^  or  a  clause  loosely 
into  a  sentence.,  so  that  it  may  be  understood  as  referring 
to  either  the  preceding  or  the  following  part.  This  care- 
less arrangement  is  often  called  "  squinting  construction." 

Ex.    Please  tell  my  mother,  if  she  is  at  home,  I  shall  not  hurry 

back. 
Better.    If  she  is  at  home,  please  tell  my  mother  that  I  shall 

not  hurry  back ;  or 

Please  tell  my  mother,  that  I  shall  not  hui-ry  back 

if  she  is  at  home. 


THE  SENTENCE  285 

EXERCISE 

Correct  the  following  sentences,  explaining  which  of  the 
special  rules  for  securing  coherence  are  violated : 

1.  Here  is  a  fresh  basket  of  eggs. 

2.  The  dress  was  trimmed  with  white  glass  round  beads. 

3.  People  ceased  to  wonder  by  degrees. 

4.  Being  early  killed,  I  sent  a  party  in  searcli  of  his  mangled  body. 

5.  Did  you  take  that  book  to  the  library,  which  I  loaned  you  ? 

6.  So  utterly  was  Carthage  destroyed  that  we  are  unable  to 
point  out  the  place  where  it  stood  at  the  present  day. 

7.  The  mad  dog  bit  a  horse  on  the  leg,  which  has  since  died. 

8.  When  a  man  kills  another  from  malice,  it  is  called  murder. 

9.  All  helped  themselves  to  what  the  keg  contained,  including 
Rip  Van  )Vinkle. 

10.  Lost.     A  Lap  Robe  having  a  yellow  tiger  on  a  red  ground, 
on  the  way  from  Fair  Haven. 

11.  Then  the  Moor,  seizing  a  bolster,  filled  with  rage  and  jeal- 
ousy, smothers  her. 

12.  He  died  of  a  slow  bilious  fever,  aged  47  years  and  6  months. 

13.  Wanted.     A  Drug  Clerk  immediately. 

14.  He  needs  no  spectacles,  that  cannot  see ;  nor  boots,  that  can- 
not walk. 

15.  Twenty-six  monks  were  buried  in  one  grave  which  had  died 
of  the  plague. 

16.  The  contents  of  the  kegs  were  poured  into  flagons,  and  Rip 
was  made  to  wait  upon  them. 

17.  I  enjoyed  the  sail  going  up  and  down  the  river  very  much. 

18.  There  is  a  horse  ploughing  with  one  eye. 

19.  The  earth  looks  as  if  it  were  flat  on  the  map. 

20.  When  the  cat  came  into  the  room,  feeling  tired,  I  laid  aside 
my  work  and  began  to  talk  to  her. 

21.  After  showing  her  the  room  prepared  for  her  use,  she  retired. 

22.  The  captain  was  only  saved  by  clinging  to  a  raft. 

23.  A  number  of  persons  were  poisoned  by  eating  ice  cream  at  a 
party  that  was  flavored  with  peach  leaves. 


286  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

24.  The  horses  became  fatigued,  and  after  holding  a  council  they 
decided  to  go  no  farther. 

25.  The  rising  tomb  a  lofty  column  bore. 

26.  Mrs.  of  Troy  was  killed  Wednesday  morning  while 

cooking  her  husband's  breakfast  in  a  shocking  manner. 

27.  The  next  is  the  tomb  of  the  Abbot  Vitalis,  who  died  in  1082, 
and  was  formerly  covered  with  plates  of  brass. 

28.  I  counted  twenty-five  meteors,  the  other  night,  sitting  on  the 
front  piazza. 

29.  There  is  on  exhibition  at  the  high  school  a  map  of  Italy 
drawn  by  a  pupil  seven  feet  long  and  four  and  a  half  feet  wide. 

30.  An  aged  woman  killed  a  snake  that  came  into  the  house  with 
a  fire-shovel,  after  all  the  rest  of  the  family  had  fled. 

31.  I  cannot  tell  you,  if  you  ask  me,  why  I  did  it. 

32.  This  monument  was  erected  to  the  memory  of  John  Smith 
who  was  shot  as  a  mark  of  affection  by  his  brother. 

33.  Anybody  could  see  that  Mother  had  been  crying,  with  half 
an  eye. 

34.  The  farmer  went  to  his  neighbor  and  told  him  that  his  cattle 
were  in  his  fields. 

35.  The  visitor's  eye  will  be  struck,  on  entering  the  room,  with  a 
porcelain  umbrella. 

36.  The  Athenians  wrote  the  name  of  a  person  whom  they 
wished  to  banish  on  a  shell. 

37.  His  son  Rip  had  grown  to  be  a  man,  and  he  inherited  all  of 
his  good  nature  and  laziness. 

38.  The  patent  sounding  board  and  equalizing  scale  are  only 
found  in  the  Mathushek  piano. 

39.  "  No,"  said  the  bashful  boy,  "  but  I  have  wished  that  I  could 
drop  through  the  floor  a  thousand  times." 

40.  And  thus  the  son  the  fervent  sire  addressed. 

41.  There  were  many  elegant  presents,  including  a  solid  silver 
set  and  a  patchwork  quilt  from  the  bride's  grandmother,  containing 
4230  separate  pieces. 

42.  Mr.  Osborn's  father  died  when  he  was  eight  years  old,  and 
from  that  time  he  was  confined  to  the  house  for  seven  years  with 
ill-health. 


THE  SENTENCE  287 

43.  Five  dollars  reward  offered  for  the  discovery  of  any  person 
injuring  this  property  by  order  of  the  chief  of  police. 

44.  Many  soldiers  have  died  since  the  war  ended  from  diseases 
the  foundation  of  which  was  laid  in  the  service. 

45.  The  swallows  come  back  each  year  to  the  places  which  have 
previously  sheltered  them,  without  map  or  compass. 

207.  Emphasis.  Emphasis  in  the  sentence  requires  an 
arrangement  of  words  that  will  bring  into  prominence 
the  central  idea,  and  subordinate  the  minor  details.  The 
chief  hindrances  to  securing  emphasis  in  the  sentence  are  : 
(1)  Weak  beginnings,  (2)  Weak  endings,  (3)  Lack  of 
attention  to  effective  climax,  and  (4)  Wordiness.  Study 
carefully  the  following  directions  and  examples  for  secur- 
ing emphasis  in  the  sentence. 

1.  Avoid  a  weak  or  commonplace  beginning.  An  inverted 
phrase  or  clause  will  sometimes  give  a  good  beginning. 

Ex.   Many  a  man  has  sacrificed  his  life  for  the  cause  of 

Truth. 
Better.    For  the  cause  of  Truth,  many  a  man  has  sacrificed 

his  life. 

2.  Since  the  end  of  the  sentence,  like  the  end  of  the 
paragraph  and  of  the  theme,  is  very  important,  special  care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  a  weak  or  commonplace  ending. 

Ex.    About  the  old  ruin  a  mysterious  silence  reigned. 
Better.     About  the  old  ruin  reigned  a  mysterious  silence. 

3.  Whenever  it  is  possible,  arrange  words  and  clauses 
so  as  to  make  an  effective  climax  (see  §  317). 

Ex.   Friends,  life  itself,  social  position,  had  no  longer  any 

attraction  for  him. 
Better.    Social  position,  friends,  life  itself,  had  no  longer  any 

attraction  for  him. 


288  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

4.  Cut  out  all  words  which  do  not  add  to  the  meaning. 
The  error  of  using  too  many  words  has  three  manifesta- 
tions :  tautology,  redundancy,  and  verbosity. 

(a)    Tautology  consists  in  repeating  the  thought. 
Ex.    Silence  reigned,  and  not  a  sound  was  heard. 

(5)  Redundancy  consists  in  using  words  which  are  not 
necessary  to  the  sense. 

Ex.    Collect  together  all  the  fragments. 

[c)  Verbosity  consists  in  using  a  needless  number  of 
words  to  express  a  given  idea. 

Ex.  One  of  those  omnipresent  characters,  who,  as  if  in  pursu- 
ance of  some  previous  arrangement,  are  certain  to  be 
encountered  in  the  vicinity  when  an  accident  occurs, 
ventured  the  suggestion. 

This  is  a  roundabout  way  of  saying,  "A  bystander 
advised." 

EXERCISE 

I 
Bring  to  class  three  sentences  in  which  the  principle  of 
emphasis  is  not  properly  regarded. 

II 

Write  three  sentences  in  which  emphasis  is  secured  by 
climax. 

Ill 

Reconstruct  the  following  sentences,  telling  what  rules 
they  violate : 

1.  The  English  language,  spoken  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth  by  a 
million  fewer  persons  than  to-day  speak  it  in  London  alone,  now 
girdles  the  earth  with  its  electric  chain  of  communication,  and  voices 
the  thoughts  of  a  hundred  million  of  souls. 


THE   SENTENCE  289 

2.  By  the  missionaries,  the  volcano  at  Ternate,  or  in  some  part 
of  the  Moluccas,  was  supposed  to  be  in  action. 

3.  Henry  Small,  a  mill  operative,  was  struck  at  Riverpoint,  K.  I., 
at  6.15  this  morning,  while  walking  on  the  track  of  the  New  York 
and  New  England  railroad,  by  an  extra  engine,  and  instantly 
killed. 

4.  From  Charleston  Harbor,  having  gained  a  booty  of  between 
seven  and  eight  thousand  dollars,  the  pirates  sailed  away  to  the  coast 
of  North  Carolina. 

5.  By  means  of  a  simple  affair  called  the  hektograph,  we  can 
make  some  fifty  copies  of  a  written  paper. 

6.  Some  people  think  that  it  is  "  the  Eastern  question  "  which 
is  the  really  serious  problem  of  to-day. 

7.  When  this  man's  talents  were  recognized,  it  was  too  late;  for 
he  and  his  wife  had  died  in  obscure  poverty. 

8.  To  imprison  all  of  the  crew  seems  unjust,  although  care 
should  be  taken  that  the  murderer  does  not  escape. 

9.  A  man,  having  incautiously  stepped  into  an  air-hole,  was 
drowned  yesterday  at  Lake  Whitney,  while  cutting  ice. 

10.  While  the  storm  was  raging,  a  tree  was  struck  by  a  flash  of 
lightning,  which  was  the  only  flash  seen  during  the  storm,  and 
which  looked  like  a  ball  of  fire. 

11.  The  freshet  destroyed  life  and  property  and  washed  away 
thousands  of  hencoops. 

12.  He  saw  before  him  ruin,  defeat,  disaster,  and  broken  health. 

13.  Phidias,  the  most  renowned  sculptor  the  world  has  ever  seen, 
has  never  had  an  equal  before  or  since. 

14.  Insects,  men,  beasts,  are  all  creatures  of  God's  hand. 

15.  Summer  is  warm,  but  extremely  pleasant;  while  winter  brings 
gloomy  days  and  cold. 

16.  He  seems  to  enjoy  the  universal  esteem  of  all  men. 

17 .  Will  you  please  raise  up  this  window  ? 

18.  It  is  a  great  privilege  to  assemble  and  meet  together. 

19.  The  least  that  is  said  on  the  subject  the  soonest  it  will 
be  mended. 

20.  She  regi'ets  that  the  multiplicity  of  her  engagements  pre- 
cludes her  accepting  your  polite  invitation. 


290  '  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


Euphony.  A  sentence  should  be  constructed  with 
due  regard  to  a  pleasant  effect  upon  the  ear,  although 
care  should,  of  course,  be  taken  not  to  sacrifice  the  sense 
to  the  sound. 

1.  Pleasantness  of  sound,  or  euphony  as  it  is  called,  is 
best  secured  by  avoiding  the  use  of  words,  or  combinations 
of  words,  which  are  difficult  to  pronounce.  The  most  melo- 
dious words  contain  a  blending  of  vowels  and  consonants, 
especially  if  some  of  the  consonants  are  liquids. 

Compare  the  following  examples  for  euphony. 

Ex.  1.  He  arbitrarily  singled  out  an  inexplicably  scrubby 
shrub  and  peremptorily  reprimanded  the  giggling 
but  shamefaced  Driggs  for  having  haggled  all  the 
shrubbery  instead  of  properly  pruning  it. 
2.  The  stars  waxed  and  waned  ;  the  sun  rose  and  set; 
the  roses  bloomed  and  fell  in  the  garden ;  the  birds 
sang  and  slept  among  the  jasmine  bowers. 

2.  Avoid  repeating  the  same  word  in  a  sentence. 

Ex.    The  general  ordered  the  captain  to  order  the  soldiers  to 

preserve  good  order. 
Better.   The  general  directed  the  captain  to  see  that  the 

soldiers  observed  good  order. 

3.  The  words  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  accents  shall 
come  at  intervals  convenient  for  the  reader  or  speaker.  The 
harmonious  flow  of  sounds  made  by  the  rise  and  fall  of 
tone  is  called  rhythm. 

Ex.  1.  It  is  delightful,  in  thus  bivouacking  on  the  prairies, 
to  lie  awake  and  gaze  at  the  stars;  it  is  like 
watching  them  from  the  deck  of  a  ship  at  sea,  when 
at  one  view  we  have  the  whole  cope  of  heaven. 
(Too   many  monosyllables.) 


THE  SENTENCE  291 

2.  At  the  border  of  the  forest  there  is  the  most  varied 
song  of  birds ;  the  chirp  of  the  lark  sounds  with  that 
of  the  yellow-hammer  and  greenfinch,  the  blackbird, 
the  finch,  the  thrush,  the  redtail,  and  the  black 
titmouse. 

EXERCISE 
Explain  the  lack  of  euphony  in  the  following  sentences, 
and  make  any  necessary  corrections: 

1.  The  gas  up  blazes  with  its  bright  white  light. 

2.  In  India,  innocent  infants  are  thrown  into  the  Ganges. 

3.  To  two  tunes  I  have  made  up  my  mind  never  to  listen. 

4.  One  cannot  imagine  what  a  monotonous  being  one  becomes 
if  one  constantly  remains  turning  one's  self  in  the  circle  of  one's 
favorite  notions. 

5.  The  public  library  will  be  of  special  value,  especially  to 
young  men. 

6.  Which  witch  was  first  burned? 

7.  I  can  can  fruit  better  than  mother  can. 

8.  She  said  loud  enough  for  those  near  to  hear,  "  What  a  fright ! " 

9.  Looking  up,  the  cobbler  saw  approaching  a  stranger  of  very 
strange  appearance.     "  Good  morning,"  said  the  stranger. 

10.  Starting  again,  he  heard  his  name  called  again. 

11.  'T  was  thou  that  soothedst  the  rough  rugged  bed  of  pain. 

12.  Some  chroniclers,  by  an  injudicious  use  of  familiar  phrases, 
express  themselves  sillily. 

13.  The  rules  of  emphasis  come  in  in  interruption  of  your  sup- 
posed general  law  of  position. 

14.  He  had  been  gone  from  the  village  twenty  years,  and  what 
was  one  night  to  him  on  the  mountains  was  in  reality  twenty 
years. 

15.  The  trees  over  our  heads  formed  a  leafy  curtain,  as  it  were. 

16.  The  reason  is  that  one  is  constantly  enjoying  himself  all 
the  time  by  the  countless  beauties  which  he  sees,  so  that  when  he 
returns  home,  it  seems  as  though  he  had  not  seen  half  the  scenes 
which  there  are  to  be  seen. 


292  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

17.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  Rome  in  her  palmiest  days  never  had 
such  a  combat  as  that. 

18.  "  Well,"  he  exclaimed,  "  this  is  truly  rural !  " 

19.  He  used  to  use  many  expressions  not  usually  used. 

20.  She  said  that  that  that  that  that  sentence  contains  is  an 
adjective. 

209.  Sentence  phraseology.  To  supplement  the  principles 
given  in  Sections  200-207,  a  few  additional  rules  for  the 
wording  of  sentences  are  given  below. 

1.  Correlatives  should  he  so  placed  as  to  leave  no  doubt  as 
to  their  office. 

Ex.  1.    Uncle  Henry  gave  me  not  only  a  game-bag,  but  also 
lent  me  his  gun  for  the  day.     (Wrong.) 
Uncle  Henry  not  only  gave  me  a  game-bag,  but  also 
lent  me  his  gun  for  the  day.     (Correct.) 

2.  You   may   either    paint   a   picture   or   a   barn    door, 

according  to  your  taste  and  ability.     (Wrong.) 
You  may  paint  either  a  picture  or  a  barn  door,  accord- 
ing to  your  taste  and  your  ability.     (Correct.) 

3.  It  is  correct  to  be  sure  in  plan,  but  it  is  faulty  enough 

in  execution.     (Wrong.) 
It  is  correct  in  plan,  to  be  sure,  but  it  is  faulty  enough 
in  execution.     (Correct.) 

2.  iVb  essential  word  that  is  not  accurately/  implied^  should 
be  omitted. 

Ex.  1.    Mrs.  Brown  is  a  charming  woman,  and  her  daughters 
(are)  pretty,  modest  girls. 

2.  That   obstacle  never   has  (been)    and   never  can   be 

surmounted. 

3.  He  forgets  his  duty  to  those  who  helped  his  friends, 

and  (to)  his  uncle  in  particular. 

4.  He  could  have  been  present  if  he  had  wished  to  (be) 


THE  SENTENCE  293 

5.  He  was  (at)  home. 

6.  This  must  have  happened  (J,n)  some  other  place. 

7.  It  is  {of)  no  use  now. 

3.  Participial  phrases  tvhich  supply  the  place  of  subordi- 
nate clauses  should  always  he  preceded  by  proper  connectives. 

Ex.  1.    While  working  his  way  through   college,   he   saved 
several  hundred  dolhirs. 

2.  Although  defeated  so  many  times,  he  never  gave  way 

to  discouragement. 

4.  The  repetition  of  articles  and  possessives  for  each  new 
idea  is  essential^  in  order  to  distinguish  and  emphasize  the 
separate  ideas. 

Ex.  1.  The  boy  and  the  girl  are  studying  at  the  library  table. 

'2.  A  spoon  and  a  fork  were  by  his  plate. 

3.  Her  aunt  and  her  uncle  are  both  here. 
But 

4.  The  comb  and  brush  are  on  the  bureau. 

5.  Wanted,  a  stenographer  and  typewriter.  (One  person.) 

5.  The  parts  of  a  complex  subject  should  often  be  repeated 
by  means  of  a  summarizing  word^  which  helps  to  unify  the 
parts  of  the  subject  and  connect  them  with  the  veib. 

Ex.  Wealth,  social  position,  political  honors,  intellectual 
attainments,  —  these  are  not  the  highest  objects  of 
ambition. 

6.  An  adverb  should  not  separate  the  parts  of  a  verb 
phrase  if  it  can  be  avoided. 

Ex.  1.    It  is  better  to  never  mind  what  cannot  be  prevented. 
Better.    It  is  better  never  to  mind  what  cannot  be  prevented. 
Ex.  2.    What  has  never  been  said  has  never  to  be  recalled. 
Better.    What  never  has  been  said  never  has  to  be  recalled. 


294  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISE 

Correct  the  following  sentences  according  to  the  princi- 
ples and  rules  already  stated  in  this  chapter : 

1.  The  Hindoos,  when  they  see  the  black  disk  of  our  satellite 
advancing  over  the  sun,  believe  that  the  jaws  of  a  dragon  are  gradually 
eating  it  up. 

2.  All  the  crew  were  rescued,  although  all  were  almost  frozen, 

3.  Mr.  French  killed  a  burglar  just  as  he  was  entering  his  door. 

4.  If  we  all  combine  our  forces  together,  we  shall  be  strong 
enough  to  resist. 

5.  The  reception  which  the  actor  received  when  he  stepped  upon 
the  stage  was  enthusiastic  and  prolonged  to  an  almost  unprecedented 
degree. 

6.  Fruit  owners  became  exasperated  over  such  petty  thefts,  and 
it  was  only  a  day  or  two  ago  that  a  man  who  has  a  fine  grape  arbor 
and  several  fruit  trees  called  and  asked  the  judge  if  he  could  not 
shoot  boys  that  trespassed  on  his  place  with  pepper  and  salt. 

7.  Butter  for  sale.  We  have  received  a  shipment  this  morning 
of  500  tubs.     The  quality  is  fine  and  put  up  in  new  firkins. 

8.  The  famous  poisoned  valley  of  Java  (Mr.  Loudon,  a  recent 
traveler  in  that  region,  tells  us  that  it  is  filled  with  skeletons  of  men 
and  birds)  has  proved  to  be  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano. 

9.  The  houses  are  built  of  small  yellow  bricks  which  were 
brought  from  Holland,  with  latticed  windows  and  gable  fronts 
surmounted  with  weathercocks. 

10.  The  settler  here  the  savage  slew. 

11.  I  shall  grant  what  you  ask  readily. 

12.  We  also  get  salt  from  the  ocean,  which  is  very  useful  to  man. 

13.  A  steel  engraving  is  suspended  from  the  back  end  of  the  hall, 
of  the  "  Heroes  of  the  Revolution." 

14.  And  so,  amid  the  laughter  of  my  friends,  aged  25  years, 
weighing  114  lbs.,  never  having  sowed  an  oat  or  milked  a  cow,  I  laid 
away  the  yardstick  and  took  up  the  fork  and  hoe. 

15.  The  Romans  understood  liberty,  at  least,  as  well  as  we. 

16.  John  Keats,  the  second  of  four  children,  like  Chaucer  and 
Spenser,  was  a  Londoner. 


THE  SENTENCE  295 

17.  I  rashly  once,  and  only  once,  tried  to  keep  up  with  him  on  a 
-;now-8lide,  and  only  succeeded  in  making  myself  feel,  from  my  head 
to  my  heels,  like  a  very  much  grated  nutmeg. 

18.  The  quicksilver  mines  of  Idria,  in  Austria  (which  were  dis- 
covered in  1797,  by  a  peasant  who,  catching  some  water  from  a 
spring,  found  the  tub  so  heavy  that  he  could  not  move  it,  and  the 
bottom  covered  with  a  shining  substance  which  turned  out  to  be 
mercury),  yield  every  year  over  three  hundred  thousand  pounds  of 
that  valuable  metal. 

19.  The  Great  Stone  Face  was  discovered  while  building  a  road 
through  the  Notch. 

20.  She  is  a  perfect  woman ;  or,  at  any  rate,  as  nearly  perfect  as 
ever  a  woman  was, 

21.  Human  beings  have  and  do  inhabit  these  dreary  regions. 

22.  Everything  is  as  clean  as  possible,  which  is  scrupulously  so. 

23.  Though  virtue  borrows  no  assistance  from,  yet  it  may  often 
be  accompanied  by,  the  advantages  of  fortune. 

24.  This  is  the  principle  I  refer  to. 

25.  I  am  an  early  riser,  but  my  wife  is  a  Presbyterian. 

26.  A  squirrel  can  climb  a  tree  quicker  than  a  boy. 

27.  They  saw  sailing  down  the  river  in  a  dreadful  procession, 
dead  bodies,  roofs  of  houses,  trees,  cows,  horses,  and  the  surface  of 
the  water  was  strewn  with  boards. 

28.  The  beaux  of  that  day  used  the  abominable  art  of  painting 
their  faces  as  well  as  the  women. 

29.  The  cellar  of  the  schoolhouse  is  still  somewhat  visible,  in 
which  a  girl  of  thirteen  years  saved  herself  from  the  tomahawk 
in  the  massacre,  and  afterward  became  the  wife  of  a  Methodist 
minister. 

30.  The  West  End  is  considerably  worked  up  over  the  mysterious 
disappearance  from  home  of  Mr.  Jenkins,  who  resides  at  45  William 
St.,  without  the  knowledge  of  his  friends  and  relatives. 

31.  This  is  a  hospital  for  old  veteran  soldiers. 

32.  A  polished  copper  plate  is  covered  with  varnish  or  wax  pre- 
pared for  the  purpose,  and  upon  it  is  drawn,  line  for  line,  as  it  is 
intended  to  appear  on  paper  with  a  sharp  needle,  which  scratches 
through  the  preparation  on  the  plate,  leaving  it  bare. 


296  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

33.  He  has  already  and  will  in  the  future  study  German. 

34.  Cheese  is  higher,  and  we  think  that  we  are  lower  than  any 
other  house  in  the  city  on  the  price. 

35.  Deceased  was  last  seen  by  a  policeman  at  11  o'clock  Wednes- 
day night,  on  the  New  York  dock,  with  his  feet  hanging  over  the 
pier  conversing  with  a  desperate  thief. 

36.  For  Sale.  New  Mackerel  in  ten-pound  kits  and  five-pound 
tins,  heads  and  tails  off. 

37.  He  has  the  refusal  of  the  lot  which  fronts  Trumbull  Street 
for  a  week. 

38.  No  one  would  have  guessed  the  relations  that  had  once 
existed  (perhaps  existed  still)  between  these  two. 

39.  She  then  spoke  and  said,  "  What  can  I  do  for  you,  my  poor 
child?" 

40.  The  hats  worn  this  season  —  some  of  them  at  least  —  are 
very  large. 

41.  He  should  never  marry  a  woman  in  high  life  that  has  no 
money. 

42.  We  soon  came  upon  a  little  diminutive  rivulet. 

43.  The  subject  of  which  I  shall  now  treat  is  not  a  subject  of 
general  interest;  but  no  other  subject  is  of  greater  importance  to 
the  subjects  of  this  kingdom. 

44.  The  remains  of  a  man  killed  forty  years  ago  were  discovered, 
ploughing  in  Central  Garden. 

45.  The  boat  pushed  off  to  the  shore,  but  speedily  returned  with 
a  dying  man,  which  the  Chinese  had  placed  in  the  boat,  who  they 
affirmed  had  been  mortally  wounded  from  the  blow  which  had  been 
received  from  the  piece  of  wood. 

46.  My  Christian  and  surname  begin  and  end  with  the  same 
letter. 

47.  Soon  the  sky  grew  dark  and  then  darker,  until  it  was  almost 
black,  then  the  thunder  began,  and  soon  came  the  rain,  and  all 
nature  was  refreshed,  but  we  were  more  than  refreshed,  as  w«  could 
find  no  shelter. 

48.  The  mosaic  portraits  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  bishops  encrust 
the  long  surface  above  the  finely  wrought  round  archways,  which 
terminate  in  a  tribune  that  is  entered  through  a  royal  arch,  inlaid 


THE  SENTENCE  297 

with  precious  colors  that  have  defied  moisture  and  damp,  and  are  as 
brilliant  as  when  the  ancient  workmen  embedded  them  there. 

49.  We  cannot  excel  in  any  work  without  attention  to  the  trifling 
minutiae. 

50.  The  forbidding  by  husbands  of  the  public  to  trust  theii  wives 
occupies  the  papers  in  this  vicinity  a  good  deal  of  late. 

51.  Alfred  the  Great  was  noted  for  the  ease  with  which  he 
remembered  the  songs  of  the  minstrels  and  his  taste  for  the  literature 
of  that  time. 

52.  I  have  just  made  arrangements  for  forwarding  four  bales  of 
goods. 

53.  He  blew  out  his  brains  after  bidding  his  wife  good-by  with 
a  gun. 

54.  But  we  have  duplicates  of  each,  agreeing  in  movement 
though  differing  in  measure,  and  which  make  different  impressions 
on  the  ear. 

55.  The  weight  of  the  skeleton  alone  [of  a  whale]  was  thirty-one 
tons,  and  was  afterwards  exhibited  in  London  and  Paris. 

.    56.    These  various    delays   delayed   the    commencement    of   the 
battle. 

57.  We  are  both  agreed  that  the  sentence  is  wrong. 

58.  The  manufacture  of  China  ware,  which  is  employed  both  for 
useful  and  ornamental  purposes  in  China,  has  been  practiced  in  that 
country  from  such  an  early  period  that  tradition  is  even  silent  not 
only  as  to  the  date  of  its  origin,  but  also  as  to  the  name  of  the 
individual  to  whom  the  nation  is  indebted  for  the  discovery. 

59.  Dr.  Johnson  was  once  arrested  for  a  debt  of  five  guineas,  the 
author  of  the  dictionary. 

60.  No  learning  is  generally  so  dearly  bought,  or  so  valuable 
when  it  is  bought,  as  the  learning  that  we  learn  in  the  school  of 
experience. 

61.  Sacred  to  the  memory  of  John  Stone,  who  lost  his  life  at  sea 
while  attempting  to  rescue  a  passenger  who  accidentally  fell  over- 
board, aged  19  years. 

62.  In  colder  waters  they  prey  upon  the  white  whale,  that  is 
somewhat  sluggish  in  its  movements,  —  at  least,  when  compared  to 
its  murderous  cousin. 


298  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

63.  Few  people  learn  anything  that  is  worth  learning  easily. 

64.  Mr.  Carlyle  has  taught  us  that  silence  is  golden  in  thirty 
volumes. 

65.  He  received  my  remarks  on  the  terrors  which  he  seeks  to 
inspire  with  great  good  nature. 

66.  We  have  two  schoolrooms  sufficiently  large  to  accommodate 
one  hundred  and  fifty  pupils,  one  above  the  other. 

67.  In  merely  correcting  the  grammar,  the  sentence  may  be  left 
inelegant. 

68.  The  reason  I  ask  you  to  do  this  is  because  you  don't  seem  to 
have  anything  else  to  do. 

69.  Work  has  been  resumed  again  at  the  feldspar  quarry.  It  is 
carried  to  Bedford  Station,  on  the  Harlem  Railroad,  and  forwarded 
to  New  York. 

70.  The  instrument  had  been  purchased  (appropriately  enough 
"  for  a  mere  song  ")  for  Martha  years  ago. 

71.  I  never  saw  such  a  boy  in  my  life. 

72.  The  spire  of  the  church  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the 
state,  and  the  interior  has  been  decorated. 

73.  We  should  constantly  observe  the  way  words  are  used  by  the 
best  writers. 

74.  A  chain  of  confections  in  imitation  of  silver  held  the  bird  of 
wisdom  to  his  candied  perch,  the  links  of  which  were  as  nicely  made 
as  the  links  of  a  watch-chain. 

75 .  Cheops  built  the  largest  pyramid  in  Egypt  which  bears  his 
name. 

76.  She  had  a  child  in  the  carriage  that  she  called  Alphonso. 

77.  The  carriage  stopped  at  the  small  gate  which  led  by  a  short 
gravel  walk  to  the  house  amidst  the  nods  and  smiles  of  the  whole  party. 

78.  Each  clergyman  declares  aloud  that  he  believes  il  a  dozen 
times  every  year  of  his  life. 

79.  If  I  mistake  not,  T  think  I  have  seen  you  before. 

80.  The  leaves  of  plants  radiate  the  heat  which  comes  to  them 
from  the  sun  with  great  rapidity. 

81.  From  the  deacon's  house  she  wandered  to  the  mountains  and 
found  this  cave,  by  what  means  no  one  ever  knew,  and  made  it  her 
home,  as  she  called  it. 


THE  SENTENCE  299 

82.  His  estimate,  then,  is  that  the  industrious  and  skilled  in  all 
trades  are  better  off  or  in  improved  circumstances  to  an  extent  that 
should  be  admitted,  as  most  decided  and  perceptible,  over  their  con- 
dition and  circumstances  ten  years  ago. 

83.  We  did  not  find  anything  in  the  domestic  architecture  very 
characteristic  and  which  spoke  even  in  the  mildest  way  of  Roman 
power  or  Gothic  force. 

84.  He  is  a  man  of  truth  and  veracity. 

85.  We  fear  that  mother  will  never  recover  back  her  health  again. 

86.  She  is  fairer,  but  not  so  amiable  as  her  sister. 

87.  Homer  was  the  greater  genius,  but  Virgil  is  thought  to  have 
excelled  him  as  an  artist. 

88.  Having  been  in  Paris  for  the  express  purpose  of  selecting  the 
very  newest  that  the  Parisian  market  affords,  you  are  most  respect- 
fully invited  to  call  and  inspect,  assuring  you  that  you  will  find  my 
stock  of  special  interest. 

89.  I  notice  your  advertisement  for  an  organist  and  music 
teacher,  either  lady  or  gentleman.  Having  been  both  for  several 
years,  I  offer  you  my  services. 

90.  The  committee  would  further  recommend  some  change  in  the 
internal  arrangements  of  the  building,  as  a  large  number  of  seats 
have  long  been  occupied  by  the  scholars  that  have  no  backs. 

91.  Her  own  story  was  that  she  had  a  quarrel  with  the  deceased, 
first  about  her  wages,  and  secondly  about  the  soup,  and  that  she 
seized  the  deceased  by  the  throat,  and  she  fell,  and  when  she  got  up, 
she  was  looking  for  something  to  strike  her  with,  and  upon  this  she 
struck  the  deceased  a  blow  on  the  throat,  and  she  fell  and  died 
almost  instantaneously. 

92.  As  we  came  along  the  road,  we  came  to  a  field  where  a  very 
pleasant-faced  peasant  was  making  hay. 

93.  The  very  things  which  I  needed  for  the  journey  which  I  was 
going  to  make  were  not  to  be  procured  in  the  little  village  which 
was  then  my  home. 

94.  She  is  a  widow  woman  with  two  twin  daughters. 

95.  Thanking  our  many  customers  for  their  patronage  in  the 
past  and  hoping  to  serve  them  better  in  the  future  will  be  the 
ambition  of  the  firm. 


300  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

96.  Wanted,  a  horse  for  a  lady,  weighing  about  nine  hundred 
pounds. 

97.  The  sort  of  weed  which  I  most  hate  (if  1  can  be  said  to  hate 
anything  which  grows  in  my  own  garden)  is  the  "pusley,"  a  fat, 
ground-clinging,  spreading,  greasy  thing,  and  the  most  propagations 
(it  is  not  my  fault  if  the  word  is  not  in  the  dictionary)  plant  I 
know. 

98.  Died.  In  this  city,  August  3,  Kate,  only  child  of  John  and 
Mary  Smith,  and  grandchild  of  Jacob  Smith,  aged  six  months. 

99.  Strayed  or  Stolen.  From  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Whitney,  a 
bay  mare,  with  a  white  star  in  her  forehead,  hitched  to  a  business 
wagon,  running  part  yellow. 

100.  He  never  spoke  to  me,  never  sought  to  make  his  presence 
an  intrusion  in  any  way ;  he  irritated  me,  nevertheless. 

SUMMARY 

210.  The  sentence  is  the  expression  of  a  complete 
thought  in  words.  For  purposes  of  rhetorical  classifica- 
tion, sentences  are  divided  according  to  their  construc- 
tion, into  periodic,  loose,  and  balanced  sentences. 

Loose  sentences  may  be  appropriate  in  description  and 
narration,  but  if  multiplied  tend  to  give  an  impression  of 
carelessness.  Periodic  sentences  add  strength  and  polish, 
but  if  used  too  freely  make  the  style  stiff  and  formal. 
Balanced  sentences  are  well  adapted  to  satiric  writing,  or 
to  essays  in  which  persons  or  things  are  contrasted.  Short 
sentences  give  animation,  though  the  constant  use  of  them 
becomes  tiresome  and  destroys  smoothness  of  expression. 
Long  sentences  may  bring  out  the  logical  relation  of  many 
ideas  in  one  view ;  but  are  not  commonly  so  easily  under- 
stood as  shorter  ones.  That  the  mind  may  not  tire  of  any 
one  style  of  construction,  these  various  kinds  of  sentences 
should  be  wisely  interspersed  in  the  paragraph. 


THE  SENTENCE  301 

The  essentials  of  the  good  sentence  are  unity,  coher- 
ence, and  emphasis.     Euphony  is  also  important. 

The  chief  means  of  securing  unity  in  the  sentence  are 
to  avoid  changing  the  point  of  view;  to  avoid  a  loose 
arrangement  of  relative  clauses ;  to  avoid  crowding  into 
the  same  sentence  ideas  which  have  no  close  connection; 
to  avoid  the  frequent  use  of  parentheses ;  to  avoid  tacking 
on  additional  clauses  when  the  sentence  is  already  com- 
plete ;  and  to  practice  writing  periodic  sentences. 

The  chief  means  of  securing  coherence  in  the  sentence 
are  to  place  all  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  as  near  as 
possible  to  the  word  or  words  which  they  modify;  to  avoid 
a  careless  use  of  participial  phrases;  to  place  every  pro- 
noun so  that  its  antecedent  cannot  be  mistaken ;  and  to 
avoid  "  squinting  constructions." 

The  chief  means  of  securing  emphasis  are  to  avoid  a 
weak  or  commonplace  beginning  and  ending ;  and,  when- 
ever appropriate,  to  arrange  words  and  clauses  so  as  to 
make  an  effective  climax. 

Euphony  is  secured  by  the  use  of  melodious  words,  by 
avoiding  the  unnecessary  use  of  the  same  word  in  one 
sentence,  and  by  attention  to  rhythm. 

Good  sentence  phraseology  requires  also  that  correla- 
tives shall  be  so  placed  as  to  leave  no  doubt  of  their 
office ;  that  no  essential  word  shall  be  omitted ;  that  parti- 
cipial phrases  which  supply  the  places  of  subordinate 
clauses  shall  always  be  preceded  by  proper  connectives; 
that  the  parts  of  a  complex  subject  shall  be  repeated  by 
means  of  a  summarizing  word;  and  that  as  a  rule  an 
adverb  shall  not  separate  the  parts  of  a  verb  phrase. 


CHAPTER    XV 
WORDS 

On  a  single  winged  word  has  hung  the  destiny  of  nations. 

Walter  Savage  Landor. 

I.     DICTION 

211.  Diction.  It  is  not  sufficient  for  a  writer  merely  to 
follow  perfectly  the  principles  of  unity,  coherence,  and 
emphasis.  A  good  style  requires  also  a  painstaking  effort 
to  select  and  use  the  best  possible  words.  That  part  of 
rhetoric  which  treats  of  the  selection  and  right  use  of 
words  is  called  Diction.  It  is  based  on  the  usage  of  the 
majority  of  the  best  writers  of  English.  The  most  impor- 
tant qualities  of  good  diction  are  Purity,  Propriety,  and 
Precision. 

212.  Purity  of  diction  consists  in  employing  only  words  that 
have  a  present,  national,  and  reputable  use  in  the  language.  A 
word  may  be  said  to  be  in  present  use  if  it  has  not 
become  obsolete,  but  is  used  commonly  in  contemporary 
literature.  A  word  to  be  in  national  use  must  be  employed 
throughout  the  whole  nation,  not  in  local  districts  or  by 
special  trades.  A  word  may  be  said  to  be  in  reputable  use 
when  it  is  found  in  the  writings  of  the  best  authors.  A 
violation  of  purity  is  called  a  barbarism. 

213.  Classes  of  barbarisms.  The  following  are  the  most 
common  classes  of  barbarisms. 

302 


WORDS  303 

1.  Foreign  words  not  ''''domesticated'''  or  '•^ naturalized. '^ 
It  sounds  affected  and  pedantic  to  use  a  foreign  word 
if  there  is  a  word  already  in  the  language  which  means 
the  same  thing.  Sometimes,  however,  no  other  word  will 
do  as  well. 

2.  Obsolete  words,  or  words  rarely  used. 

Ex.   Yclepedy  for  called. 
Bedight,  for  adorned. 
Erstwhile,  for  formerly. 

3.  New  words  not  sanctioned  by  good  usage.  Much  care 
is  necessary  in  judging  which  of  the  many  new  words 
introduced  into  the  language  each  year  through  the  influ- 
ence of  commerce,  science,  invention,  and  discovery,  and 
the  advance  of  new  ideas,  are  sanctioned  by  usage.  New 
meanings  of  old  words  are  also  puzzling.  Perhaps  the 
safest  rule  for  young  writers  is  to  delay  using  the  new 
words  until  their  position  in  the  language  is  recognized 
beyond  the  possibility  of  question.  The  new  words  force 
themselves  with  sufficient  rapidity  into  current  literature, 
and  thence  into  standard  writing. 

A  generation  ago  scarcely  one  of  the  following  words 
was  common  ;  now  they  have  forced  their  way  into  dic- 
tionaries, even  those  published  in  Great  Britain  :  anti- 
pyrine,  aquarelle,  bacteriology,  blizzard,  to  boom,  to  cable, 
centerboard,  cocaine,  cowboy,  to  cycle,  dude,  dynamo,  fad- 
dist, flabbergast,  hypnotist,  impressionist,  lanolin,  log-rolling, 
machine  gu7i,  magazine  rifle,  Mahatma,  massage,  melinite, 
menthol,  mugwump,  Neoplatonism,  occultism,  photogravure, 
platinotype,  prognosis,  quadriform,  referendum,  religiosity, 
saccharine,  sloyd,  telepathy,  tuberculosis,  vaseline,  and 
xylophone. 


304  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

4.  Incorrectly  formed  words,  or  "  hybrids.''^  Words  which 
have  stems  and  endings  from  different  languages  are  called 
"  hybrids,"  and  are  commonly  not  sanctioned  by  good  usage. 

Ex.    Singist ;  root  Anglo-Saxon,  ending  Greek. 

Not  all  such  words  are  to  be  condemned.  Photographer, 
for  example,  is  incorrectly  formed ;  but  we  never  hear  the 
logically  formed  word  photographist. 

5.  Technical  words,  those  peculiar  to  a  trade,  an  art,  or 
a  science. 

Ex.  Anneal   (glass-making);    reagent    (chemistry);    developer 
(photography);  subpcena  (law). 

The  meaning  of  such  terms,  however,  is  often  widened, 
so  that  they  are  not  strictly  technical.  For  instance,  the 
following  sentences  contain  terms  most  frequently  met 
with  in  mathematics,  but  here  used  in  a  legitimate  way. 

Ex.  1.    Henry  George  was  the  exponent  of  the  principles  of 
the  Anti-Poverty  Society. 

2.  Are  we  to  eliminate  from  our  schools  the  old  history 

of  Greece  and  Rome? 

3.  The  soul  is  an  unknown  quantity. 

6.  Local  or  provincial  words  peculiar  to  a  place  or  to  a 
part  of  a  country. 

Ex.    Guess,  right  smart,  reckon  (for  think),  garden  truck. 

7.  Low,  colloquial,  or  vulgar  words.  This  class  includes 
all  slang  terms.  In  defense  of  the  use  of  slang  it  may 
be  maintained  that  slang  is  sometimes  forcible,  and  that  it 
often  secures  a  foothold  in  the  language  through  its  very 
expressiveness.  Even  though  such  words  may  change 
their  standing,  it  is  wise  to  avoid  them  as  long  as  they  can 
by  any  possibility  be  classed  as  slang. 


WORDS  305 

EXERCISE 

I 

Criticise  the  following  words  with  reference  to  their 
purity,  and  employ  in  sentences  of  your  own  twenty  of 
them  which  are  sanctioned  by  usage  : 

1.  X  la  mode,  alibi,  alias,  acrobat,  affidavit,  adieu,  alma  mater, 
agnostic,  Anarchist,  athletics. 

2.  Bric-k-brac,   bonanza,   belladonna,   bogus,   boycott,   bicycle, 
bulldoze,  blas^,  currentness,  casuality. 

3.  Chef  d'ceuvre,  cabal,  coupon,  celluloid,  campaign  (politics), 
cute,  crank  (person),  cablegram,  d^pot,  distingu^. 

4.  Dude,  disgruntled,  debris,  employe,  finale,  fiat,  "the  Dick- 
ens," Fenian,  gumption,  good-bye. 

5.  Hallelujah,    hegira,    helter-skelter,    incertain,    ignis-fatuus, 
ignoramus,  item,  idiot,  interviewer,  kirmess. 

6.  Locate,   misaffected,   mugwump,   mandamus,   n6e,    nom    de 
plume.  Nihilist,  nobby,  orate,  on  dit. 

7.  Omnibus,    oleomargarine,    optimist,    preventative,    prot^g^, 
parvenu,  patois,  palladium,  phonography,  pessimist. 

8.  Quorum,  quiz,  quoth,  rendezvous,  rampage,  rebus,  soupgon, 
spirituelle,  sang-froid,  skedaddle. 

9.  Soi-disant,  saleslady,  siesta,  shibboleth,  stentorian,  soapine, 
sterling,  saunterer.  Socialist,  swell  (adjective). 

10.  Talkist,  telephone,  tawdry,  toboggan,  tgte-a-t§te,  typewriter, 
unique,  unexcusable,  wilderness,  waitress. 

II 
Find  the  derivation,  meaning,  and  use  of  each  of  the 
following  words : 

microbe  cosmopolitan  tuberculosis 

automobile  flotilla  outing 

locomobile  Anglo-maniac  shrapnel 

megaphone  propaganda  sloyd 

graphophone  ante  bellum  cuisine 


306 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


gramophone 

fin-de-siecle 

burro 

telephone 

kopje 

shampoo 

biograph 

searchlight 

Lyddite 

motif 

veldt 

bibliography 

imperialist 

cloudburst 

pyrotechnics 

stenography 

khaki 

caricature 

bushwhacker 

Mauser 

Boxer 

plutocracy 

subaltern 

plumber 

dowager 

heredity 

Pan-American 

statistician 

expansionist 

Populist 

aesthetic 

volt 

technique 

heliograph 

dynamo 

conservative 

refrigerator 

epitome 

subsidy 

kindergarten 

cantankerous 

anti-trust 

Sibylline 

arbitration 

inter-state 

Sabbatarian 

golf 

franchise 

pneumatics 

genre 

burgher 

caligraph 

brownie 

neostyle 

insectarium 

ecumenical 

chute 

palmistry 

idealist 

incubator 

ritualism 

environment 

vandalism 

na'ive 

machete 

arroyo 

cult 

parasite 

reciprocity 

metropolitan 

municipal 

itinerary 

syllabus 

Boer 

jurisdiction 

semester 

insurgent 

evolutionist 

ceramics 

journalism 

Pharisaism 

utilitarian 

federation 

poster 

boatswain 

realistic 

antiseptic 

coxswain 

collaboration 

phonograph 

kodak 

gherkins 

mimeograph 

amateur 

guillotine 

pompadour 

paraphernalia 

vocation 

Lilliputian 

hypnotism 

crusade 

eschatology 

virile 

gymnasium 

immunity 

puerile 

minimize 

indemnity 

Renaissance 

Pentateuch 

snack 

WORDS 


307 


tyro 

iconoclast 

folk-lore 

lithograph 

sachet 

paragon 

nugget 

recipe 

receipt 

trolley 


inauguration 
syndicate 
(  sanitarium  > 
(  sanatorium  ) 
reservation 
Socialism 
massage 
epidemic 
correlated 
surreptitious 


corrugated 

feudal 

idiosyncrasy 

pecuniary 

mortuary 

domestic 

equilibrium 

psychology 

concept 

cumulative 


214.  Propriety  of  diction  consists  in  choosing  words  that 
properly  express  the  intended  meaning.  A  word  or  phrase 
which  does  not  convey  the  idea  intended  by  the  author  is 
an  impropriety.  It  should  not  be  confused  with  a  sole- 
cism^ which  is  a  violation  of  the  principles  of  grammar. 

Ex.  1.    May    I    bring   this   pencil  to  my   sister    in  No.  8? 
(Impropriety.) 
2.    Each   of    the  boys   done  their  examples    as   neat  as 
possible.     (Solecism.) 

215.  Et3nnology  not  an  infallible  guide.  It  is  never  safe 
to  assume  that  the  present  meaning  of  a  word  is  that 
indicated  by  its  etymology.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
study  of  the  origin  of  words  is  of  great  assistance  in 
securing  an  accurate  vocabulary.  The  following  are 
examples  of  words,  the  etymological  meaning  of  which  is 
not  sanctioned  by  present  usage. 

Urbane,  living  in  a  city. 

Prevent,  to  go  before.     The  word  is  used  in  this  sense  in  the  Bible. 

Ex.  "  I  prevented  the  dawning  of  the  morning." 
Miser,  a  mvierable  person. 

Impertinent,  not  pertinent^  not  pertaining  to  the  matter  in  hand. 
Censure,  opinion  either  good  or  bad. 


308  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Reduce,  to  bring  back.  Ex.  "A  good  man  will  go  a  little  out  of 
his  road  to  reduce  the  wandering  traveler." 

Depart  had  originally  the  meaning  of  dividing  or  separating. 
The  clause  in  the  marriage  service,  "till  death  us  do  part,"  origi- 
nally read,  "  till  death  us  depart." 

216.  Means  of  attaining  propriety.  The  dictionary  is  a 
good,  but  not  always  infallible  guide  to  propriety,  since  it 
aims  to  give  all  the  ways  in  which  a  word  may  be  used. 
It  is  to  be  remembered  also  that  words  are  continually 
losing  old  meanings  and  gaining  new  ones,  so  that  it  is 
not  wise  to  copy  the  diction  of  even  the  best  of  our  earlier 
writers.  The  surest  way  of  attaining  propriety  of  diction 
is  carefully  to  observe  and  imitate  the  usage  of  the  best 
writers  and  speakers  of  the  present  day. 

217.  Some  common  solecisms.  The  following  are  among 
the  most  common  solecisms,  indicating  lack  of  education 
or  lack  of  care  in  speech. 

1.  Mistakes 'pi  the  use  of  the  past  and  present  perfect 

tenses  of  the  verb.     The  verbs  lie,  lay,  sit,  set,  and  seat  are 

the  worst  offenders.     Special  care  is  also  needed  in  the 

use   of   contractions,   such  as  donH,  does  n't,  and  are  nH. 

The  safest  guide  is  to  supply  the  letters  omitted.     For 

example,  we  cannot  write  It  donH;  for  the  complete  form 

is  does  not  (does  nH).     Hain't  and  ain't  are  wrong,  because 

they  are  not  contractions  at  all. 

Ex.  1 .    He  laid  down  on  the  grass  and  slept  four  hours. 
2.    Ain't  you  sorry  that  she  don't  want  to  go? 

2.  Use  of  verbs  for  nouns. 

Ex.  1.    His  recommends  are  first-rate. 

2.    The  audience  applauded  more  loudly  as  the  orator 
gestured  more  and  more  wildly. 


WORDS  309 

3.  Misuse  of  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

Ex.  1.   You  have  done  your  work  real  good. 

2.    In    the    then    condition    of    affairs    arbitration    was 
impossible. 

4.  Use  of  an  unauthorized  verbal  form  made  from  a 
noun  or  adjective. 

Ex.    Is  it  not  strange  to  see  that  old  custom  resurrected  f 
Thousands  of  Americans  now  enthuse  over  golf. 

5.  Confusion  of  ^^ shalV  and  ^^will^""  '•^should''  and 
''^  would.'''*  In  simple,  direct  statements,  to  express  mere 
futurity,  use  shall  in  the  first  person,  and  will  in  the 
second  and  third;  to  express  volition,  promise,  purpose, 
determination,  or  action  which  the  speaker  means  to  control, 
use  will  in  the  first  person  and  shall  in  the  second  and  third 
persons. 

The  following  table  shows  the  facts  at  a  glance. 

SHALL   AND   WILL 


In  simple,  direct  statements. 

Futurity 

Volition 

I  shall 

I  will 

You  will 

You  shall 

He  will 

He  shall 

In  questions.  In  asking  questions,  use  for  the  second 
and  third  persons  the  auxiliary  expected  in  the  answer. 
The  first  person  always  uses  shall. 

FuTUEiTT  Volition 

Shall  I?  

Shall  you?  Will  you? 

Will  he?  Shall  he? 


310  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

In  subordinate  clauses.  In  all  other  cases,  as  in  subordi- 
nate clauses,  shall  is  used  in  all  persons  to  express  mere 
futurity;  will  to  express  volition. 

In  indirect  discourse.  When  the  subject  of  the  principal 
clause  is  different  from  that  of  the  noun  clause,  the  usage 
is  similar  to  that  in  direct  statements. 

Ex.    The    teacher    says    that   James    will   win    the    medal. 
(Futurity.)i 

EXCEPTIONS 

a.  Will  is  often  used  in  the  second  person  to  express 
an  official  command  (speaker's  volition). 

Ex.    You  will  fire  on  the  fort  at  once. 

b.  Shall  is  sometimes  used  in  the  second  and  third 
persons  to  express  futurity,  as  in  Biblical  phrases. 

Ex.    Ye  shall  know  the  truth,  and  the  truth  shall  make  you 
free. 

SHOULD   AND   WOULD 

The  difference  between  should  and  would  is  mainly  the 
same  as  that  between  shall  and  will. 


In  simple,  direct  statements. 

Futurity 

Volition 

I  should 

I  would 

You  would 

You  should 

He  would 

He  should 

In  questions.     In  asking  questions  use  the  form  for  the 
second  and  third  persons  that  is  expected  in  the  answer. 

iBut  (with  the  subjects  the  same),  "The  teacher  says  that  he  shall  soon 
give  up  his  position  "  (futurity),  as  in  subordinate  clauses. 


WORDS  311 

The  fii*st  person  uses  should  to  express  mere  futurity,  would 
to  express  volitiou. 

Futurity  Volition 

Should  I?  Would  I? 

Should  you?  Would  you? 

Would  he?  Should  he? 

In  subordinate  clauses.  In  subordinate  clauses  should  is 
used  in  all  persons  to  express  futurity ;  would,  to  express 
volition. 

In  indirect  discourse.  The  usage  is  similar  to  that  in 
direct  statements. 

Ex.    The  teacher  said  that  James  would  win  the  prize. 

EXCEPTIONS 

a.  Should  is  frequently  used  to  express  moral  obligation. 

Ex.    You  should  do  your  duty  at  whatever  cost. 

b.  Would  may  be  used  to  express  frequentative  action. 

Ex.    He  would  walk  up  and  down  the  beach  for  hours  at  a 
time. 

EXERCISE 


In   the   following    sentences   correct    the   violations    of 
propriety,  consulting  the  dictionary  if  necessary : 

1.  Every  one  of  the  audience  held  his  breath  while  the  fearless 
girl  danced  along  the  rope,  far  above  the  heads  of  the  people. 

2.  Your  son's  writing  is  bad  enough,  but  his  spelling  is  posi- 
tively awful. 

3.  The  last  magazine  contains  a  poem  on  "  Our  Dead  Singer," 
alUdiruj  to  Longfellow. 


312  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

4.  Mrs.  Caudle's  style  of  conversation  is  enough  to  aggravate  a 
saint. 

5.  I  allow  that  no  woman  is  going  to  order  me  around. 

6.  It  will  be  apt  to  rain  on  Saturday  if  you  are  going  on  a 
picnic. 

7.  Hannibal  saw  before  him  three  alternatives,  —  to  march  upon 
Rome,  to  attack  the  army  of  Claudius  Nero,  and  to  wait  for  reinforce- 
ments from  Carthage. 

8.  June  M^as  a  cold,  wet  month ;  but  the  balance  of  the  summer 
w^as  hot  and  dry. 

9.  Having  received  your  kind  invitation  to  visit  you  this  sum- 
mer, I  write  to  say  that  I  am  sorry  I  cannot  go. 

10.  You  might  come  for  at  least  a  couple  of  days. 

11.  George  Eliot  was  buried  on  a  stormy  day  that  was  calculated 
to  test  the  love  of  the  friends  who  were  present  at  the  funeral. 

12.  It  was  afterwards  discovered  that  the  woman  was  innocent 
of  the  charge  and  highly  respectable  in  every  way,  but  of  course  her 
character  was  ruined  by  the  affair. 

13.  His  style  of  living  corresponded  with  his  means. 

14.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Jenkins  considers  dancing  as  one  of  the  deadly 
sins. 

15.  The  gallant  captain  took  the  battery,  but  his  company  was 
sadly  decimated  during  the  charge,  nearly  half  of  the  men  being 
killed  and  many  others  wounded. 

16.  Our  servant  girl  says  that  she  will  not  demean  herself 
any  longer  by  living  with  ladies  that  spend  so  much  time  in  the 
kitchen. 

17.  The  United  States  has  so  greatly  encouraged  emigration  that 
it  now  finds  itself  embarrassed  by  certain  foreign  elements  of  popu- 
lation which  have  become  too  powerful. 

18.  When  the  fisherman's  wife  heard  the  news,  she  seemed  deeply 
effected. 

19.  It  gives  me  great  pleasure  to  except  your  kind  invitation  for 
Thursday. 

20.  I  expect  that  my  grandfather  was  rather  a  wild  lad  in  his  day. 

21.  This  institution  furnishes  exceptionable  advantages  to  students 
wishing  to  pursue  an  advanced  course  of  study. 


WOEDS  313 

22.  How  much  further  is  it  to  Boston  by  the  other  road? 

23.  By   running    down    a    narrow    alley,    the    thief   illuded   his 
pursuers. 

24.  Everything  about  the  house  proclaimed  that  its  owner  was  an 
individual  of  taste. 

25.  Aunt  Mary  is  going  to  learn  us  how  to  play  chess. 

26.  I  love  baked  apples  and  cream. 

27.  There  were  not  less  than  a  hundred  persons  at  the  meeting. 

28.  Our  neighbor's  trees  are  full  of  apples,  but  we  shall  not  have 
so  much  as  we  had  last  year. 

29.  Is  n't  our  Algebra  lesson  lovely  ? 

30.  Mr.  Fisher  is  a  mutual  friend  of  John's  and  mine. 

31.  It  seems  funny  that  the  girls  did  not  put  on  mourning  for 
their  grandfather. 

32.  The  Scotts  are  so  nice  that  I  know  we  '11  have  a  nice  time 
visiting  them. 

33.  This  very  result  was  predicated  in  our  columns,  three  months 
ago. 

34.  Who  was  that  fat  old  party  who  kept  us  all  laughing  ? 

35.  In  the  solitude  of  his  cell  the  condemned  man  partook  of  his 
last  meal. 

36.  Edith  always  says  ^^lots  of  folks"  when  she  means  ^^ quantities 
of  persons." 

37.  You  have  as  much  right  to  get  ten  demerits  as  I  have. 

38.  Hoping  to  hear  from  you  again,  I  remain.  Yours  respectively. 

39.  The  Governor  is  stopping  in  town  for  a  few  days. 

40.  Set  the  sum  under  the  column  of  ones,  and  so  proceed  with 
each  column  successfully. 

41.  Many  years  have  now  transpired  since  Sumter's  guns  woke 
the  nation  to  a  sense  of  its  peril. 

42.  Please    excuse    my    daughter    for    absence.     She    had    the 
teethache. 

43.  Tell  your  mother  that  if  she  is  too  busy  to  write,  she  may 
send  me  a  verbal  message  by  you. 

44.  You  will  be  liable  to  find  a  fishing-rod  at  the  corner  store. 

45.  He  is  yveW  posted  in  regard  to  the  management  of  railroads. 


314  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

II 

Explain  the  difference  in  meaning  between  the  follow- 
ing sentences : 

1.  He  will  (shall)  come  to-morrow. 

2.  I  will  (shall)  not  allow  it. 

3.  You  shall  (will)  win  the  race. 

4.  Shall  (will)  you  go  ? 

5.  He  says  that  John  will  (shall)  return  at  once. 

6.  She  declares  that  she  shall  (will)  not  be  denied. 

7.  Will  (shall)  he  follow  us? 

8.  Shall  (will)  you  accept  the  nomination  ? 

9.  He  will  (shall)  never  return. 

10.   He  says  that  he  will  (shall)  never  return. 

HI 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  shall  or  will  : 

1.  He obey  me,  or  he lose  his  position. 

2.  I go  wherever  you  bid  me. 

3.   we  go  to  Europe  next  summer? 

4.   he  speak  to  that  dirty  beggar  ? 

5.  You offer  your  resignation  at  once. 

6.    not  the  Judge  of  all  the  earth  do  right  ? 

7.  They  say  that  they be  ready  when  you  call. 

8.  Do  you  think  that  I get  the  Latin  prize  ? 

9.  I  shut  myself  in  my  room,  and  nobody see  me 

until  this  task  is  finished.  . 

10.    If  John consent,  we join  him. 

IV 

Explain  the  difference  in  meaning  between  the  follow- 
ing sentences : 

1.  I  should  (would)  like  to  come. 

2.  He  would  (should)  make  an  able  speaker. 


WORDS  315 

3.  Would  (should)  you  like  to  stay  longer? 

4.  Where  would  (should)  I  find  him  ? 

5.  He  said  that  his  sister  would  (should)  never  return. 

6.  James  wrote  that  he  would  (should)  need  more  money. 

7.  She  should  (would)  be  sorry  to  miss  her  boat. 

8.  I  asked  her  whether  she  would  (should)  go  to-day. 

9.  If  she  would  (should)  win  the  prize,  we  would  (should)  be 
surprised. 

10.    If  it  would  (should)  rain,  we  would  (should)  postpone  our 
trip. 


In  the  following  sentences  supply  should  or  would 

1.  you  think  that  he hesitate  so  long? 

2.  you  accept,  if  you  were  invited? 

3.  I think  that  he know  better. 

4.  He  promised  that  he come  again. 

5 .  What you  do  so  far  from  home  ? 

6.  He do  well  to  remain  where  he  is. 

7.  She not  find  the  book,  I  am  sure. 

8.  She  hoped  that  Mary succeed. 

9.  We like  to  see  him  again. 

10.  Where you  prefer  to  meet  us  ? 


VI 

Supply  the  pronoun  their,  the  adverb  there,  or  the  con- 
traction they  We  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.    shall  be  no  night . 

2.  My  parents  would  not  give consent. 

3.  In  all wanderings,  they  never  lost  sight  of signal- 
light. 

4.    often  supposed  to  be  adverbs  because  of close  con- 
nection with  the  verb. 

5.  I  won't  go  if going  to  be . 


316  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

VII 
Supply  the  verb  ought^  or  the  nouns  aught  or  nought  in 
the  following  sentences : 

1.  The  figures  are  seven, ,  three,  five. 

2.  I  have  n't to  give  you. 

3.  Hast  thou against  thy  neighbor? 

4.  You to  have  another in  your  minuend. 

5.  Have  you to  make  you  proud  and  boastful  ? 

6.  It  may  be  poison  for I  know. 

7.  We not  to  speak  against  our  neighbors. 

VIII 
Supply  the  preposition  to^  the  adverb  too^  or  the  numeral 
adjective  two  in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  Hattie  says  she  will  join  the  class  if  we  are  going . 

2.    late  1  late  !  ye  cannot  enter  now. 

3.  These are dark,  but  the  other are  very  suitable. 

4.  I  should  say  that  you  have many. 

5.  You  may  go  if  you  wish . 

6.  We  need  not  be  afraid  of  doing much help  others. 

7.  "Then , "  he  said,  "I  cannot  believe  that  she  would  be 

proud work  for such  children." 

IX 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  each  other^  either  or 
neither,  one  another^  any,  or  none  : 
1.   Let  two  straight  lines  cut . 


2.  Parents  like  to  see  their  children  kind  to . 

3.  Two  negatives  in  English  destroy . 

4.  The  two  John  Smiths  are  not  related  to . 

5.  I  do  not  admire of  the  three  girls. 

6.  of  the  twelve  jurors   could  be  induced  to  believe  the 

prisoner  guilty. 

7.  of  the  twins  is  fond  of  music. 

8.  John  nor  Fred  went  with  us. 


WORDS  317 


In  the  following  sentences  suppl}^  most  or  almost  : 

1.  The  poor  lady's  money  is gone. 

2.  We always  visit  here  in  the  summer. 

3.   all  species  of  flowers  are  attractive  to  the  eye. 

4.  My  work  is done  and  I  am tired  out. 

5.    everybody  gossips  more  or  less. 

6.  You  will  find  me  at  home any  time. 

7.   people  have  to  learn  to  eat  olives. 

8.    of  the  pupils  have  finished  their  examinations. 

XI 

In   the    following    sentences    supply    the    prepositions 
except  or  without^  or  the  conjunction  unless: 

1 .  Mother  will  not  let  us  go it  stops  raining. 

2.  Do  not  write you  feel  in  the  mood  for  it. 

3.  The  book  has  no  real  merit its  simplicity  and  naturalness. 

4.  They  could  not  hear  the  guns opening  the  window. 

5.    you  promise  to  do  better,  you  must  lose  your  holiday. 

6.  The  family  have  all  gone  to  the  fire father  and  James. 

7.  It  is  not  likely  to  be  pleasant the  wind  changes  to  the 

west. 

XII 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  the  adjective  like  or 
the  adverb  as  : 

1.  The  corolla  of  the  mint  looks the  mouth  of  an  animal. 

2.  I  wish  you  would  do your  sister  does. 

3.  Nobody  will  miss  mother I  shall. 

4.  He  looks Solomon  in  all  his  gloiy. 

5.  It  is it  was  to  be  a  king  when   men   struggled   among 

themselves  to  see  who  should  be  king. 

6.  Charlie  is  a  timid,  nervous  child, his  father  was. 

7.  If  we    all    contributed the  widow  who  gave  her  mite, 

the  sum  would  soon  be  secured. 


318  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

8.  If  each  man  would  only  add  his  mite, the  pilgrim  adds 

his  stone  to  the  heap  in  the  desert,  the  temple  would  soon  rise  and 
show  its  fair  proportions  to  the  world. 

9.    a  tall,  fair  lily  rose  the  marble  column  toward  the  sky. 

10.    I  wish  I  could  skate Henry  can. 


XIII 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  the  preposition  beside 
or  the  adverb  besides  : 

1.  No  one the  immediate  family  was  present  at  the  funeral. 

2.    ,  we  cannot  be  sure  that  that  is  the  meaning. 

3.  That  frail  little  form  was  dearer  to  her  than  all  the  world . 

4.    ■  the  road  rose  the  chimney  of  a  ruined  house. 

5.  There  are  several  houses  that,  three  miles  farther  on 

towards  Lenox. 

6.    actual   crimes   there    are    many   cruel    blunders    to    be 

atoned  for. 

XIV 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  the  adjective  some^ 
the  noun  something^  or  the  adverb  somewhat: 

1.  Jennie  looks like,  her  mother. 

2.  She  feels better  this  morning. 

3.  I   am sorry   that   I   did    not    choose from   grand- 
mother's treasures  when  I  had  a  chance  to  do  so. 

4.  This  braid  will  be  pretty  put  on like  a  Grecian  chain. 

5.    of  the  party  came  back sooner  than  they  intended. 

6.  Have  you on  your  mind  ?     No,  I  am  only tired. 

7.  She  was provoked  at  my  telling  her that  was  said 

about  her. 

XV 

In   the  following   sentences    distinguish   between    the 
preposition  into^  which  carries  with  it  the  idea  of  motion, 


WORDS  319 

and  the  preposition  in,  which  carries  with  it  the  idea  of 
rest: 

1.  My  son  lives Lewisboro a  little  white  house. 

2.  Put  some  corn  the  measure  and  carry  it the  barn. 

3.  She  threw  herself her  old  rocker  and five  minutes 

rocked  herself  halfway  across  the  room.- 

4.  The  factory,  two  dwelling-houses,  and  an  adjoining  shed  were 
blown fragments. 

5.  The  large  sheets  of  tin  were  then  cut squares  and  tri- 
angles, and  neatly  packed boxes. 

XVI 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  the  preposition  upon 
or  the  adverb  and  preposition  on  to  : 

1.  "  Well,"  said  Harry,  "  if  you  don't  hurry,  the  shower  will  be 
you." 

2.  Did  your  friends  go the  mountain  or  merely  sketch  it 

from  the  fort? 

3.  They  went the  next  village  that  night. 

4.  Mr.  Hayes  has  succeeded  in  writing  all  the  ninety-first  psalm 
a  common  postal  card. 

5.  Appliqu6  embroidery  is  made  by  cutting  out  ornamental 
figures  and  putting  them velvet  or  other  material. 

6.  Do  not  place  your  hopes  of  advancement luck,  but  by 

hard  work  move  steadily  success. 

XVH 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  between  or  among  : 

Note.  —  The  expression  "  between  each "  is  evidently 
wrong ;  it  should  be  "  between  each  two,"  "  before  each,"  or 
"after  each." 

1.   No   little   ill-will   was  stirred  up  the  various  races  — 

English,  French,  Scotch,  and  Irish  —  who  inhabited  Canada. 


320  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

2.  Two  thousand  dollars  were  divided the  five  children. 

3.    each  row  of  pear  trees  are  planted  the  plum  trees. 

4.  Leave  a  blank  line of  your  answers  to  the  exam- 
ination questions. 

5.  St.    Paul    says,  you  know,   that  we  must  be  at  peace  

ourselves. 

6.  This  arrangement  sandwiches  a  sermon  or  a  biblical  lecture 
chapter  of  the  story. 

XVIII 

Copy  from  the  dictionary  the  successive  meanings  of  the 
following  words: 

Pupil,  wretch,  painful,  damsel,  gossip,  nephew,  brave,  vivacity, 
imp,  improve,  idiot,  carriage,  demerit,  heathen,  villain. 

218.  Precision  consists  in  choosing  from  several  words  of 
similar  meaning  the  exact  word  which  will  express  the  shade  of 
meaning  intended  by  the  writer.  It  requires  accurate  knowl- 
edge of  synonyms  and  ability  to  use  them  discriminatingly. 

219.  Synonyms.  Synonyms  are  words  of  similar,  but 
not  identical  meaning.  While  several  words  may  convey 
the  same  general  idea,  each  word  has  its  own  particular 
force  and  application.  A  careful  study  of  these  special 
meanings  increases  the  pupil's  vocabulary,  and  leads 
him  to  recognize  many  hitherto  undiscovered  beauties  of 
thought  and  expression.  No  other  language  is  so  rich  in 
synonymous  terms  as  is  the  English,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  we  have  in  addition  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  words  many 
equivalents  from  the  Latin,  the  Greek,  and  other  foreign 
languages.  In  addition  to  the  dictionaries  referred  to  on 
page  184,  the  "New  English  Dictionary"  and  Crabb's 
"  English  Synonyms  "  are  invaluable  helps  in  this  study. 


WOBDS  321 

220.  Chief  violations  of  precision.  The  following  are  three 
of  the  most  serious  violations  of  precision. 

1.  Ambiguity.  When  a  word  or  expression  is  capable 
of  being  understood  in  either  of  two  senses,  it  is  called 
ambiguous  {amhi  and  agere^  "  to  drive  about ").  The  use  of 
an  ambiguous  word  or  phrase  causes  the  reader  or  hearer 
a  mental  uncertainty  that  is  annoying. 

Ex.  1.    She  could  not  hear  a  word  of  the  conversation  going 
on  about  (around  or  concerning  ?)  her. 

2.  The  love  o/ (for  or  characteristic  of?)  a  father  was 

strong  in  him. 

3.  From  the  first  he  has  had  a  certain  (sure  or  partial  ?) 

success. 

2.  Over-statement  or  understatement  of  facts.  A  word 
correct  in  its  general  idea  may  yet  be  too  strong  or  too 
weak  to  give  the  precise  shade  of  thought.  This  is  shown 
in  the  following  sentences. 

Ex.  1.    Capt.  Brown  was  furious  (for  vexed  or  annoyed)  at 
the  delay. 
2.    His  fault  (for  crime)  was  embezzlement. 

A  study  of  synonyms  will  aid  the  student  in  securing 
the  desired  accuracy  of  statement. 

221.  Value  of  idioms.  An  idiom  is  a  form  of  expression 
peculiar  to  a  particular  language.  It  often  cannot  be 
translated  literally  or  pai-sed  according  to  the  rules  of 
grammar;  but  it  usually  has  a  rugged,  homely  strength 
of  its  own,  and  adds  to  the  naturalness  and  simplicity 
of  speech  and  writing.  The  following  are  examples  of 
familiar  English  idioms: 


S22  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

hard  put  to  it  for  in  great  extremity. 

by  all  odds  "  certainly. 

must  needs  "  must  of  necessity. 

get  up  "  arise. 

get  rid  of  "  be  emancipated  from. 

get  used  to  "  become  accustomed  to. 

222.  Value  of  Anglo-Saxon  words.  The  basis  of  the  Eng- 
lish language  is  the  Anglo-Saxon  element  in  it.  Of  the 
words  found  in  the  dictionary  less  than  one-half  are  Anglo- 
Saxon  ;  but  of  the  words  in  common  use  the  proportion  of 
derivatives  from  this  source  is  relatively  greater,  because 
almost  all  the  connecting  words,  the  articles,  the  pronouns, 
and  the  auxiliary  verbs  are  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin.  Of  the 
nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs,  the  following  classes  are 
almost  always  Anglo-Saxon. 

1.  Names  of  our  earliest  and  dearest  associations. 

Ex.  Home,  friends,  father,  mother,  husband,  wife,  son, 
daughter,  brother,  sister,  fireside,  hearth. 

2.  Words  expressing  our  strongest  natural  feelings. 

Ex.  Gladness  (not  joy),  sorrow  (not  grief),  tears,  smiles, 
blushes,  laughing,  weeping,  sighing,  groaning,  love, 
hate  (not  anger),  fear,  pride,  mirth,  hungry,  thirsty, 
tired,  sleepy,  lonesome,  homesick,  naughty. 

3.  Names  of  common  things^  such  as  a  child  early  notices 
and  learns  to  use. 

Ex.    Sun,  moon,  star,  sky,  cloud,  earth,  water. 

Animals  :  horse,  cow,  dog,  cat,  calf,  pig  (heef,  veal,  and  pork 

are  Norman  terms). 
Objects  in  the  plant  world  :  tree,  bush,  grass  (not  fower  or  vine). 
Objects  in  the  mineral  world:  sand,  salt,  iron,  gold,  stone 

(not  rock). 


I 


WORDS  S23 

Features  of   scenery :    hill,    Moods,    stream,   land,   sea    (not 

mountain  or  valley). 
Natural  divisions  of  time,  etc. :  day,  night,  morning,  evening, 

noon,  midnight,  sunset,  sunrise,  twilight,  light,  darkness. 
Kinds  of  weather,  etc. :  cold,  heat,  wet,  dry,  wind,  frost,  hail, 

rain,  sleet,  snow,  thunder,  lightning,  storm. 
Parts  of  the  body  :  hand,  arm,  head,  leg,  eye,  ear,  foot,  nose 

(not  face). 

4.  Most  of  our  particular  terms.      The  general  terms 
6  mainly  from  the  Latin,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  follow- 

ng  examples : 

Latin.  Saxon. 

motion.  slide,  creep,  walk,  fly,  swim,  etc. 

color.  white,  blue,  red,  green,  yellow,  etc. 

sound.  buzz,  speak,  whistle,  roar,  etc. 

animal.  dog,  man,  sheep,  wolf,  etc. 

all  the  cardinal  numbers  to  a  million, 
all  the  ordinal  numbers  except  second. 

5.  Most  of  the  words  used  in  the  common  affairs  of 
everyday  life.  .The  words  that  we  hear  in  the  home,  on 
the  street,  in  the  shops  and  markets,  and  on  the  farm  are, 
to  a  great  extent,  Anglo-Saxon  words. 

Ex.  Sell,  buy,  cheap,  dear,  high,  low,  weight  (not  measure), 
work,  grind,  reap,  sow,  baker,  shoemaker,  worth,  want, 
wedge,  spring,  scrape,  sweep,  wash,  rich,  poor,  busi- 
ness, wages  (not  salary). 

Caution. — Notice  that  many  such  words  are  not  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  origin ;  for  example,  money.  The  dictionary,  of  course, 
may  be  consulted  for  derivations. 

6.  Many  colloquialisms  ;  that  is,  words  that  are  peculiar 
to  the  language  of  familiar  conversation.  Slang  expressions 
are  common  examples  of  colloquialisms. 


number.  J 


324  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

7.  Most  words  in  our  proverbs  and  maxims. 

These  "old  sayings,"  or  "household  words,"  as  they  are 
sometimes  called,  owe  much  of  their  force  to  their  simple 
Saxon  style. 

Ex.  "Make  hay  while  the  sun  shines."  .  "A  bird  in  the 
hand  is  worth  two  in  the  bush."  "No  pains,  no 
gains."      "  Look  before  you  leap." 

As  a  rule,  these  words  express  simple  ideas  and  are  . 
short  in  form.  Writers  are  often  urged  to  use  then0 
because  they  give  directness,  simplicity,  and  vigor. 

223.  Value  of  classical  words.  A  large  number  of  words 
in  the  English  language  are  derived  from  the  Latin,  either 
directly  by  way  of  the  ecclesiastics,  or  indirectly  largely 
through  the  Norman-French.  •  Science  and  education  have 
also  brought  into  the  language  many  words  of  Greek  deri- 
vation. These  Latin  and  Greek  words  constitute  the  clas- 
sical element  of  the  language.  They  add  dignity  and  a 
certain  sonorous  quality  to  writing,  and  are  especially 
adapted  for  the  making  of  periodic  sentences  and  somewhat 
elaborate  climaxes.  A  very  great  many  of  these  deriva- 
tives are,  of  course,  in  everyday  use  —  for  example,  add, 
divide,  arithmetic,  music,  organ,  picture,  art,  poem,  use, 
claim,  and  promise  —  and  often  have  no  exact  equiva- 
lent in  Anglo-Saxon.  Indeed  for  certain  subjects  they 
are  indispensable. 

224.  Value  of  specific  words.  Specific  words  are  those 
which  give  particular,  instead  of  general  terms  (see  §  222, 
4).  They  are  more  descriptive  than  general  terms,  and 
therefore  call   up  vivid   mental   pictures.     They  are    of 


WORDS  325 

especial  value  in  description  and  narration  (see  §§  93,  6; 
95,  5  ;   123,  7),  and  are  often  useful  in  detailed  exposition. 

225.  Nature  of  a  good  English  vocabulary.  The  best  Eng- 
lish vocabulary  is  the  one  that  will  enable  its  possessor  to 
understand  and  to  express  perfectly  the  greatest  variety 
of  thought.  It  is  evident  that  a  large  number  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  words  are  essential  to  simple  and  natural  expres- 
sion. Since  a  certain  proportion  of  classical  woids  aids 
in  giving  dignity  and  polish,  the  good  vocabulary  will 
include  a  judicious  mingling  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  classical 
derivatives.  It  is  sometimes  said  that  the  average  person 
uses  in  daily  speech  less  than  five  hundred  of  the  possible 
two  hundred  thousand  words  supplied  by  the  dictionary. 
While  no  person  would  attempt  to  use  all  the  words  in  the 
dictionary,  he  certainly  should  be  able  to  use  several  times 
the  five  hundred  words. 

There  is  usually  a  great  disparity  between  the  num- 
ber of  words  which  a  person  understands  and  the  number 
which  he  uses  to  express  his  own  thought.  This  disparity  is 
owing  in  part  to  the  narrow  range  of  topics  to  which  most 
people  confine  themselves;  in  part  to  the  laziness  which 
indisposes  them  to  search  for  the  most  fitting  expressions ; 
and  not  infrequently  to  a  foolish  shame  which  keeps  them 
from  using  the  best  they  know,  lest  their  talk  may  sound 
affected  or  bookish. 

EXERCISE 

I 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  the  words  abandon, 
desert,  or  forsake : 


326  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

1.  At  the  approach  of  winter  the  birds their  nests,  and  fly 

towards  the  south. 

2.  The  heartless  mother her  child,  leaving  it  to  the  charity 

of  strangers. 

3.  No  true  soldier  will his  post  in  the  hour  of  danger. 

4.  What  sadder  sight  than    a house,   what  more  grievous 

lot  than  that  of  a wife  ! 

5.  The  captain his  ship  to  the  mercy  of  the  waves. 

II 

In   the  following  sentences   supply  the  words  absolve^ 
exonerate^  or  acquit: 

1.  After  a  long  trial,  the  prisoner  was by  the  intelligent 

2.  When  it  was  discovered  that  John  was  the  real  offender,  his 
brother  was from  the  charge. 

3.  "W^hy,  Mary,"  said  her  mistress,  "do  you  believe  that  the 
priest  can you  from  the  sin  of  stealing  ?  " 

4.  I  accept  your  apology  and you  from  all  blame. 

Ill 

In    the    following   sentences    supply    the    words    agedy 
ancient^  antique,  antiquated,  obsolete,  or  old  : 

1.  This  parchment  scroll  written  in  capitals  is  an book. 

2.  My friend,  Mrs.  Collins,  has  an father. 

3.  A   dress  made  fifty  years  ago  looks  not   so   very now, 

but,  on  the  contrary,  almost  stylish. 

4.  We  saw  an  elegant  silver  vase  of design,  but  of  recent 

manufacture. 

5.  The  word  misaffected  is  now . 

6.  I  found  in  the  garret  a History  of  Rome,  and,  in  spite  of 

its style,  I  became  deeply  interested  in  its  account  of  that 

nation. 


WORDS  327 

7.  My  brother  has  a  collection  of coins,  including  an  almost 

complete  set  of  United  States  pennies,  and  a  few specimens  of 

the  money  used  by  the Greeks  and  Romans. 

8.  Her  costume  was enough  to  be  worn  at  an  Old  Folks' 

Concert,  and  I  could  n't  help  laughing,  whereupon  my relative 

remarked  that  reverence  for  the must  be in  these  days. 

IV 

In    the    following   sentences    supply  the   words  avow^ 
acknowledge,  confess,  or  admit: 

1.  The  two  older  brothers their   intention   of  enlisting  in 

the  army,  and  when  questioned, that  they  had  already  visited 

the  recruiting  officer. 

2.  I my   fault.     I my   sin.     I my  purpose  to  do 

better  in  the  future. 

3.  With  shame  I that  you  are  right  in  thinking  that  I  only 

half  believe  the  principles  which  I . 

4.  She that  she  had  whispered  and her  intention  of 

doing  it  again  under  like  circumstances. 


In  the   following  sentences  supply  the  words   account, 
description,  narrative,  narration,  or  recital: 

1.  I  listened  as  patiently  as  possible  to  the of  her  numer- 
ous trials,  real  and  imaginary. 

2.  Have   you   read   the of   that   awful    railroad    accident? 

The of  the  scenes  about  the  wreck  is  heart-rending. 

3.  No  one  who  heard  her  relate  the  anecdote  can  doubt  that  she 
has  wonderful  powers  of . 

4.  The of  the   life  of   a  missionary's  family  occupies  the 

opening  chapters.     Then   follows  a  fine of   the  island  itself 

and  a of  the  thrilling  events  of  the  sixth  of  August. 

5.  The  commander  of  the  fort  refused  to  hear  the of  the 

Indian's  wrongs,  so  the  chief  strode  away,  thirsting  for  revenge. 


328  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

VI 

In    the  following  sentences   supply  the  words   attend^ 
hearken^  or  listen: 

1.  It  is  impolite  to to  conversation  which  is  not  intended 

for  our  ears. 

2.  You  will  find  no  difficulty  in  doing  the  examples,  if  you 

to  the  explanation. 

3.  Young  persons  should to  the  counsels  of  their  elders. 

4.    unto  the  words  of  our  great  white  father  in  Washington. 

5.  The   frightened    mother  ,  dreading  to   hear  the   sound 

again. 

VII 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  the  words  discover  or 
invent : 

1.  Stephenson  is  said  to  have the  steam  engine. 

2.  It  is  said  that  Pythagoras the  proposition  that  the  square 

on  the  longest  side  of  a  right-angled  triangle  is  equal  to  the  sum  of 
the  squares  on  the  other  two  sides. 

3.  Many  men  are  at  work  trying  to an  electric  motor  that 

shall  not  have  this  disadvantage. 

4.  Doubtless    not    all    the    properties    of    electricity   have    yet 
been  . 

5.  Whitney the    cotton  gin ;    and  Morse,  the  electric  tele- 
graph. 

VIII 

In   the  following  sentences   supply  the   words  only  or 
alone : 

1.  She of  all  the  family,  had  courage  to  go into  that 

darkened  room. 

2.  Man  shall  not  live  by  bread  . 

3.  They  differ  on one  point,  but  that  is  a  sufficient 

cause  for  unhappiness. 


WORDS  329 

4.  The survivor  of  all  the  ship's  company  lived  for  many 

years on  a  desert  island. 

5.  virtue  can  make    us  happy.     Virtue can  make  us 

happy. 

IX 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  the  words  sufficient  or 
enoiigh  : 

1.  Have  you courage  to  carry  you  through  this  ordeal? 

2.  Many  people  have  money for  all  their  needs,  but  very 

few  have money,  and  I  never  heard  of  anybody  who  thought 

he  had  too  much. 

3.  A  greedy  child  never  has  . 

4.  It  is for  me  to  know  that  heaven  is  a  place  of  rest. 

5.  We  have proof  of  his  disloyalty  to  warrant  us  in  treating 

him  with  coldness. 

X 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  the  words  pale^  pallid^ 

or  wan : 

1.  In  the  moonlight  the  sufferer's  face  looked and  worn. 

2.  A  slight  flush  came  over  the face  of  the  sick  girl. 

3.  And   there,  their faces  pinched  with  the  cold,  hovered 

the  children  of  poverty. 

4.  Miss  B.  wore  a  charming  costume  of  green. 

5.  The beams  of  the  moon  shone  in  at  the  window. 


XI 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  the  words  opportunity 
or  occasion  : 

1.  If  you  have to  go  to  the  village  this  afternoon,  will  you 

seize  the to  inquire  if  our  teakettle  is  mended  ? 

2.  I  frequently  have to  call  upon  Mrs.  Fox,  in  connection 

with  our  work  for  the  poor  children  of  the  church. 


k 


380  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

3.  The  short  noon  recess  gives  but  little for  going  liome  to 

dinner. 

4.  The  teacher  took to  say  to  his  class,  "  You  are  neglect- 
ing golden  ." 

5.  On  such she  wore  a  black  silk  apron. 

XII 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  the  words  kill^  murder^ 

or  assassinate : 

1.  President  Garfield  was . 

2.  After his  employer,  the  wretch  returned  to  the  barn  and 

resumed  his  occupation  of and  dressing  turkeys  for  market. 

3.  The  king  was by  a  man  who  shot  an  arrow  at  him  from 

behind  a  great  tree  in  the  forest. 

4.  Forty-seven  persons  were by  the  explosion  of  a  boiler. 

5.  Mr.   Gilbert  the  burglar  in  the  act  of  carrying  off  his 

booty. 

XIII 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  the  expressions  consist 
in  or  consist  of: 

1.  Diction,  as  considered  in  this  work,  three  parts :  Purity, 

Propriety,  and  Precision. 

2.  Good  order quiet  attention  to  the  duty  of  the  hour. 

3.  True  happiness  does  not having  everything  our  own  way. 

4.  The  air two  gases  :  oxygen  and  nitrogen. 

XIV 

Complete  the  following  sentences  by  choosing  the  cor- 
rect words  from  the  synonyms  suggested  in  brackets  : 

1.  General     Gordon    led     the     attack    with     great    (courage    or 
fortitude). 

2.  She  bore  the  operation  with  great  (courage  or  fortitude). 

3.  We  intend  to  (stop  or  stay)  here  three  weeks. 


WORDS  331 

4.  Are  you  (conscious  or  aware)  that  it  is  growing  dark  ? 

5.  Blanche  became  (conscious  or  aware)  that  she  was  in  danger 
of  making  a  great  mistake. 

6.  Will  you  spend  a  week  with  us  at  our  new  summer  (house, 
mansion,  palace,  or  residence)  ? 

7.  How  long  is  it  since  Major  Carpenter  came  to  this  (vicinity, 
region,  or  neighborhood)  to  live  ? 

8.  Did  you  find  your  (labor,  work,  toil,  task,  or  effort)  irksome  ? 

9.  That  is  the  most  tremendous  (labor,  work,  toil,  task,  or  eifort) 
that  has  been  accomplished  within  my  remembrance. 

10.  We  should  treat  our  friends  with  (respect,  esteem,  regard, 
deference,  or  reverence),  our  parents  with  (respect,  esteem,  regard, 
deference,  or  reverence),  and  God  with  (respect,  esteem,  regard, 
deference,  or  reverence). 

XV 

Give  the  derivations  of  the  following  words,  and  use 
the  words  correctly  in  sentences  of  your  own  : 

Yearn,  boyish,  object  (noun),  excite,  naughty,  business,  external, 
childlike,  sanctuary,  outlaw,  elevate,  lacteal,  untruth,  sixty,  verbosity, 
precipitate,  veracity,  mysterious,  telephone,  philosopher,  damask, 
shibboleth,  elixir,  humcane,  wigwam,  caste,  smuggle,  diminutive, 
cosmopolitan,  catalogue. 

XVI 

Rewrite  the  following  selection,  using  as  far  as  possible 
only  Anglo-Saxon  words,  and  observe  the  effect : 

To  lessen  that  disdain  with  which  scholars  are  inclined  to  look 
on  the  common  business  of  the  world,  and  the  unwillingness  with 
which  they  condescend  to  learn  what  is  not  to  be  found  in  any  sys- 
tem of  philosophy,  it  may  be  necessary  to  consider,  that  though 
admiration  is  excited  by  abstruse  researches  and  remote  discoveries, 
yet  pleasure  is  not  given,  nor  affection  conciliated,  but  by  softer 
accomplishments,  and  qualities  more  easily  communicable  to  those 
about  us.     He  that  can  only  converse  upon  questions  about  which 


332  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

only  a  small  part  of  mankind  has  knowledge  sufficiejit  to  make  them 
curious,  must  lose  his  days  in  unsocial  silence,  and  live  in  the  crowd 
of  life  without  a  companion.  He  that  can  only  be  useful  on  great 
occasions  may  die  without  exercising  his  abilities,  and  stand  a  help- 
less spectator  of  a  thousand  vexations  which  fret  away  happiness, 
and  which  nothing  is  required  to  remove  but  a  little  dexterity  of 
conduct  and  readiness  of  expedients. 

No  degree  of  knowledge  attainable  by  man  is  able  to  set  him 
above  the  want  of  hourly  assistance,  or  to  extinguish  the  desire  of 
fond  endearments  and  tender  officiousness ;  and,  therefore,  no  one 
should  think  it  unnecessary  to  learn  those  arts  by  which  friendship 
may  be  gained.  Kindness  is  preserved  by  constant  reciprocation  of 
benefits  or  interchange  of  pleasures ;  but  such  benefits  only  can  be 
bestowed  as  others  are  capable  to  receive,  and  such  pleasures  only 
imparted  as  others  are  qualified  to  enjoy,      j^^    g^^^^^  Johnson. 

XVII 

Copy  the  anecdote  of  A  Sagacious  Dog,  found  on  page 
122,  underlining  once  the  Anglo-Saxon  words,  and  twice 
those  of  classical  origin. 

XVIII 

Rewrite  the  following  correctly  in  all  respects : 

New  haven  June  22  1901  My  dear  friend  I  expect  you  are  aggra- 
vated with  me  because  I  have  not  written  to  you  but  I  have  had  a 
couple  of  our  mutual  friends  stopping  with  me  and  they  would  not 
do  anything  or  go  anywhere  without  I  went  to  one  morning  we 
went  fishing  but  it  was  so  hot  we  got  awful  tired  and  could  not  go 
any  further  and  when  we  got  home  we  were  glad  to  lay  down  in 
fact  we  spent  the  balance  of  the  day  in  the  house  and  the  next  day 
we  were  all  two  much  used  up  to  go  to  the  tennis  tournament  where 
there  was  to  be  some  exceptionable  playing  by  some  swell  players 
who  had  excepted  a  challenge  from  our  club  none  of  our  boys  play 
like  they  do  of  course  but  we  lost  less  games  than  we  expected  too 
and  I  guess  they  were  surprised  at  this  for  they  had  not  considered 


WORDS  333 

us  as  having  much  of  a  character  as  players  we  felt  dreadfully  dis- 
appointed at  missing  the  fun  father  dont  say  much  but  he  allows 
we  have  learned  a  lesson  we  will  not  be  apt  to  forget  neither  of  we 
three  fellows  have  wanted  to  go  fishing  since  that  time  many  other 
events  have  transpired  during  these  few  weeks  but  I  nmst  complete 
my  letter  at  once  if  it  is  to  go  to  you  to-day 

Yours  respectively 

11.     USE   OF  ENGLISH   DICTIONARIES 

226.  Importance  of  the  study  of  the  dictionary.  Since  a 
dictionary  is  not  only  a  storehouse  of  words,  but  also  an 
authority  as  to  the  usage  of  tlie  best  authors,  its  value  as 
an  aid  to  correct  diction  is  obvious.  Many  students  are 
not  familiar  enough  with  this  invaluable  aid  to  English 
composition  to  understand  its  true  worth.  It  will  be 
well  to  consider  carefully  at  this  point  some  special  fea- 
tures of  the  dictionary  which  bear  directly  on  the  student's 
diction. 

227.  Special  merits  of  dictionaries.  Several  first-class  dic- 
tionaries are  now  in  general  use.  Although  in  the  main 
their  characteristics  are  the  same,  yet  each  of  them  has 
some  features  which  make  it  of  special  interest.  The 
Webster's  International  is  particularly  good  for  derivation 
and  definition  ;  Worcester,  for  spelling  ;  Hie  Centura/,  for 
the  size  of  its  vocabulary  and  for  the  treatment  of  new 
words  and  expressions ;  Skeat,  for  etymology  and  history 
of  words  ;  and  The  New  English  (not  yet  entirely  com- 
pleted), for  a  combination  of  these  features. 

228.  Interesting  features  of  unabridged  dictionaries.  An 
unabridged  dictionary,  if  wisely  used,  is  one  of  the  most 


334  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

valuable  aids  to  accurate  writing.  Students  frequently 
fail  to  realize  how  much  of  genuine  interest  is  contained 
between  the  covers  of  these  books.  The  following  are 
the  most  essential  facts  to  be  found  there. 

1.  Brief  history  of  the  English  language.  This  is  found 
in  the  introductory  pages.  If  the  matter  is  not  already 
familiar  from  class  work,  it  would  be  both  interesting  and 
profitable  for  the  student  to  read  those  pages  with  care. 

2.  Pronunciation.  Most  students  are  well  aware  that 
the  correct  pronunciation  of  a  word  may  be  ascertained  by 
consulting  the  dictionary,  but  not  all  of  them  know  the 
meaning  of  the  marks  used  to  indicate  the  pronunciation. 

(1)  Marks  of  pronunciation.  The  most  common 
marks  are  the  macron  (nd-tion) ;  the  breve  (net) ;  the 
diaeresis  (zoology) ;  the  dot  (dsk) ;  the  wave  {,fern) ; 
the  circumflex  (urn);  the  cedilla  {fagade). 

(2)  Most  common  vowel  sounds  : 


a  as  in  ale. 

a  as  in  senate. 

3<  as  in  am. 

a  as  in  ask. 

a  as  in  all. 

a  as  in  father. 


1  as  in  ice. 
1  as  in  Idea. 
I  as  in  pYn. 


p  as  in  old. 
6  as  in  open, 

M  6  as  in  6dd. 

^  6  as  in  6rb. 


e  as  m  eve.  u  as  m  use. 

6  as  in  6nd.  u  as  in  unite, 

e  as  in  event.  li  as  in  up. 

e  as  in  fern.  u  as  in  rude. 

(e)as  in  prud(e)nce.  n  as  in  full. 

u  as  in  urn. 


WORDS  335 

(3)  Consonants  and  vowels.  A  vowel  is  a  sound 
produced  by  the  vocal  organs  in  an  open  position. 
The  vowels  are  five  in  number:  a,  e,  ^,  o,  and  u.  A 
consonant  is  a  sound  produced  by  the  articulation,  or 
closing,  of  the  vocal  organs. 

(4)  Diphthongs  and  digraphs.  A  diphthong  is  a 
combination  of  vowel  sounds  pronounced  in  one 
syllable.  A  digraph  is  a  combination  of  vowels  or 
consonants  which  have  but  one  sound.  The  follow- 
ing are  a  few  of  the  most  common  diphthongs  and 
digraphs : 

Diphthongs : 

oil  as  in  out. 


oi    as  in  oil. 


Digraphs : 


ai    as  in  rain. 

eo  as  in  people. 

oil  as  in  soup. 

ou  as  in  soul. 

ph  as  in  phalanx. 

ch  as  in  chorus  or  chair. 

(5)  Some  consonant  sounds  needing  to  be  studied 
with  special  care  are : 

c  and  (7,  hard  before  a,  o,  and  m,  soft  before  e,  i,  and  y 
(cat,  cell,  city,  cot,  cut,  cycle);  ch  hard  as  in  chorus,  soft  as  in 
chair;  th,  surd  as  in  thin  and  worth;  sonant  as  in  then  and 
smooth;  s,  surd  as  in  so  and  this;  sonant  as  in  has  and  wise. 

(6)  Syllables  and  accents.     A  syllable  is  a  succes- 
sion of  sounds  produced  by  one  impulse  of  the  breath. 


336  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

Syllables  are  indicated  in  the  dictionary  by  the  use  of 
hyphens.  An  accent  is  a  mark  which  indicates  that 
the  syllable  over  which  it  is  placed  receives  a  special 
stress  of  the  voice.  If  a  word  is  long,  it  sometimes 
has  two  accents,  one  called  the  primary  accent,  which 
receives  the  greater  stress,  and  another  called  the 
secondary  accent,  which  receives  a  less  degree  of 
stress. 

Ex.   Mul'-ti-pli-ca'-tion. 

(7)  Some  rules  for  syllabication : 

a.  Members  of  a  compound  word,  themselves 
English  words  with  meanings  recognized  in  the 
compound,  are  separated  into  syllables, 

Ex.    Foot-stool;  way-faring. 

b.  Two  letters  forming  a  diphthong  or  digraph 
are  not  to  be  separated. 

Ex.    Princess-es. 

c.  Two  vowels  coming  together,  and  sounded 
separately,  belong  to  separate  syllables. 

Ex.    A-orta  ;  sci-ence  ;  moi-ety. 

d.  Certain  consonants  do  not  usually  end  a 
syllable. 

(a)  c  and  g  when  soft  (enti-cing;  wa-ger). 

(b)  t,  s,  z,  c,  sc,  g,  and  d,  which,  when  followed  by  i  or 
e,  give  the  sound  of  sh  (ra-tional;  o-cean). 

(c)  s,  z,  t,  and  d,  which,  when  followed  by  u,  give  the 
sound  of  sh,  zh,  ch,  or  /  (censure;  sei-zure ;  na-ture; 
ver-dure) . 


WORDS  337 

e.  Certain  consonants  do  not  begin  a  syllable. 

(a)  X,  with  the  sound  of  ks  or  gz  (anx-ious ;  ex-actly). 

(b)  r  preceded  by  a  or  e  (pdr-ent ;  aver-age). 

(c)  Single  /,  n,  or  v,  followed  by  t,  with  the  sound  of 
consonant  y  {fol-io ;  gen-ius  ;  sav-iof). 

f.  Prefixes  and  suffixes  are  often  separated. 

Ex.    Sweet-ish;  eat-able. 

g.  When  a  single  consonant  or  a  digraph  comes 
between  two  sounded  vowels,  it  usually  joins  the 
following  vowel. 

Ex.   Rea-son;  no-tify;  fa-ther. 

This  rule,  however,  has  some  exceptions;  for 
example, 

A.  When  two  or  three  consonants,  capable  of 
beginning  a  syllable,  come  between  two  sounded 
vowels,  they  may  all  he  joined  to  the  following 
vowel ; 

(a)  When  the  preceding  vowel  is  long  and  accented 
{end'-hling ;  He'-hreic ;  I'-dler), 

(b)  When  the  following  vowel  is  in  an  accented  syl- 
lable (o-blige' ;  re-proof'^. 

i.  When  two  or  more  consonants,  capable  of 
beginning  a  syllable,  come  between  two  sounded 
vowels,  one  may  be  joined  to  the  preceding  vowel ; 

(&)    When  the  vowel  is  short  (tab-let ;  res-cue ;  mus-ket), 
(b)    When   the   consonants   are   st,    str,  or  sp,   if   the 
preceding  or  following  syllable  is  accented  (mas'-ter ;  aus- 
tere';  oys'-ter). 


838  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

j.  When  a  consonant  is  doubled,  the  division 
of  the  syllables  is  usually  made  between  these 
two  letters. 

Ex.    Rob-ber ;  bed-ding ;  bril-liant. 

3.  Spelling.  Whenever  the  student  is  in  any  doubt 
about  the  absolutely  correct  form,  he  should  consult  the 
dictionary.  Some  of  the  words  which  are  most  often  mis- 
spelled are:  irregular  plurals;  words  which  require  the 
doubling  of  a  consonant  before  adding  a  syllable  beginning 
with  a  vowel ;  words  ending  in  ceed^  cede,  and  sede ;  and 
words  containing  ei  or  ie.  When  two  or  more  forms  of 
spelling  are  permissible,  the  preferred  form,  which  is  always 
given  first,  should  be  the  one  selected  for  use. 

4.  Derivation  and  history  of  words.  The  derivation  of 
a  word  often  helps  to  precision  of  diction,  although  as  was 
shown  in  Section  215  the  word  may  have  had  successive 
meanings  in  the  course  of  its  history,  and  may  at  the  pres- 
ent time  be  used  in  a  sense  not  readily  allied  with  its 
etymology.     These  facts  are  shown  in  the  example  given 

below. 

Derivation  and  history :  Siesta,  n.  [Sp.  :  Pg.  sesta,  from 
Lat.  sexta,  the  sixth  hour  after  sunrise,  i.e.  the  hour  of 
noon.] 

Definition  :  A  short  sleep  taken  about  the  middle  of  the 
day,  or  after  dinner. 

Criticism:  Foreign  word,  not  domesticated.  An  illus- 
tration of  a  large  class  of  words  introduced  by  travelers  in 
foreign  countries. 

Illustration:  In  Spain  no  business  is  done  during  the 
middle  of  the  day,  as  all  the  inhabitants  are  then  taking 
a  siesta. 


WORDS  339 

5.  Synonyms  (see  §  219). 

6.  Dictionary  of  fictitious  persons  and  places.  This  gives 
in  a  condensed  form  facts  which  are  hard  to  find,  unless 
the  student  has  the  use  of  a  large  library. 

7.  Pronouncing  gazetteer.  This  contains  the  accepted 
pronunciation  of  proper  names  often  met  with  in  reading 
and  study. 

8.  Pronouncing  biographical  dictionary.  This  gives  in 
abridged  form  many  of  the  most  essential  facts  already 
referred  to  as  being  found  in  LippincotVs  Biographical 
Dictionary. 

9.  Familiar  words,  phrases,  and  proverbs  taken  from 
other  languages. 

10.  Important  abbreviations. 

11.  Some  marks  commonly  used  in  the  correction  of  proof  . 
The  meaning  and  use  of  the  most  common  marks  used  in 
the  correction  of  proof  are  shown  below  in  connection  with 
a  page  of  a  high-school  pupil's  theme. 

Many  of  the  marks  explain  themselves,  but  the  following 
may  require  explanation  : 

5  (Lat.  dele)  take  out. 

9  turn  a  reversed  letter. 

7^  a  space  or  more  space  between  letters  or  words. 

O  less  space  or  no  space  between  letters  or  words. 

|_  av  ^1^    carry  a  word  farther  to  the  left  or  right. 

I  raise  a  letter,  word,  or  character  sunk  below  the  proper 

level. 
I I  sink  a  letter,  word,  or  character  raised  above  the  proper 

level. 
—-  print  as  a  single  character :  as  ae  =  ae. 

IT  make  a  new  paragraph. 


340  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

^Q.  Tf  no  paragraph  needed  here. 

==  put  in  small  capitals. 

■  put  in  capitals. 

(with  siet  in  margin)  restore  words  crossed  out. 

th.  transpose. 

w-i,  wrong  font. 

l.e^.  lower  case  ;    that  is,  put  in  small  or  common  letters  a 

word  or  letter  that  has  been  printed  in  capitals  or 

small  capitals. 
Qy.e.,  see  copy. 


Sir  Roger  at  a  Ball-Game  O 


When  the  Academy  team  caiie  upon  the  campus  /yyv 

in  their  padded  suits,  Sir  Roger  rose  from  his 

^.^,  sEat,  and  stared  at  them  in  great  surprise.     As 

9  soon  as  qe  could  make  him  self  heard  he  said, 

Y  Why,  those  youths  have  not  half  washed  and  dresed  . 

themselves  this  morning." 

c4o-  IF  The  people  who  sat  near  by  looked  first  aston- 

ished and  then  amused.     I  gently  pulled  my  old 

^i^^  friend  down  into  his  saet,  just  as  the  umpiresaid,         /  :^ 

8/         ''Play    ball/"      H  Our    ^aptain,     Joe     Peavey,     /  <^.^, 
struck   a   ball   over    the   outfield    and    the    high      /f^^ 

oX.^  board  fence  boyond,  giving  three  of  our  men 
time  to  get  in.  The  last  man  slid  for  the  home 
plate  amid  great  applause.     Sir  Roger  seized  me 

wf.  by  the  arm,  shouting,  "The  young  man  is  dead,    I 

poor  thing !   killed  by  that  awful  ball !   O,  your 
barbarous  customs !  " 


i 


WORDS  841 

12.  Pictorial  illustrations.  The  details  in  the  pictures 
are  so  clearly  indicated  that  they  furnish  much  valuable 
information  to  one  who  will  take  pains  to  study  them 
carefully. 

EXERCISE 

I 
Look  up  the  following  words  in  an  unabridged  diction- 
ary, name  all  the  marks  of  pronunciation,  and  pronounce 
the  words : 

Multiplication,  canon,  facade,  discrepancy,  isolated,  inquiry, 
glacier,  extempore,  meningitis,  precise,  allopathy,  sinecure,  pane- 
gyric, posthumous. 

II 

Copy  the  derivation  and  history  of  the  following  words, 
according  to  the  model  given  in  Section  228,  4  : 

Boycott,  quiz,  mugwump,  nihilist,  quorum,  soupgon,  shibboleth, 
tobacco,  heathen,  pagoda. 

ni 

From  the  list  of  fictitious  persons  and  places  given  at 
the  back  of  the  dictionary,  explain  the  following  ex- 
pressions : 

1.  Apostle  of  the  English. 

2.  Lone  Star  State. 

3.  Man  with  the  Iron  Mask. 

4.  Apostle  of  the  Indians. 

5.  Mother  Goose. 

6.  Mutual  Admiration  Society. 

7.  Almighty  Dollar. 

8.  Cabal. 

9.  Star  Chamber. 
10.  Wheel  of  Fortune. 


342  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

IV 

Pronounce  the  following  words,  observing  carefully  the 
marks  used  in  the  pronouncing  gazetteer  at  the  back  of 
the  dictionary  : 

Choctaw  Indians  ;  Cossack  ;  Dunsinane  ;  Chateaux  en  Espagne  ; 
Chevalier. 


Pronounce  the  following  words,  observing  carefully  the 
marks  of  pronunciation  used  in  the  biographical  dictionary 
at  the  back  of  Wehsteys  Dictionary  : 

Ossian;  Munchausen;  Paderewski;  Tolstoi;  Taliaferro;  Rizzio; 
Murillo  ;  Massasoit ;  Kossuth  ;  Rameses ;  Coeur  de  Lion ;  Boccaccio  ; 
Fatima;  Liszt;  Chateaubriand. 

VI 

Explain  the  meaning  of  the  following  words  and 
phrases  : 

A  bon  march6 ;  ad  libitum ;  multum  in  parvo ;  anno  Domini ; 
faux  pas ;  comme  il  f aut ;  coup  d'etat ;  in  loco  parentis ;  fin  de 
siecle ;  amour  propre. 

VII 

Correct  Exercise  XVIII  on  page  332,  using  the  proof 
reader's  marks  of  correction  as  noted  in  Section  228,  11. 

VIII 

Find  the  meaning  of  the  following  expressions  from  the 
pictorial  illustrations  given  at  the  back  of  the  dictionary  : 

1.  Doric;  Ionic;  Corinthian;  caryatid;  cupola;  dormer  win- 
dow ;  entablature ;  gable  ;  hip  roof ;  frieze ;  Mansard  roof ;  turret ; 
wainscot. 


WORDS  343 

2.  Batteriiig-rani ;  l)luiKlerbuss  ;  bayonet ;  blockhouse ;  poleax  ; 
dagger ;  catapult ;  javeliu  ;  lance  ;  gun  carriage  ;  knapsack ;  grape- 
shot  ;  portcullis ;  pontoon  bridge. 

SUMMARY 

229.  Diction  treats  of  the  selection  and  the  right  use 
of  words,  and  is  based  on  the  usage  of  the  majority  of 
the  best  English  writers.  The  chief  qualities  of  diction 
are  purity,  propriety,  and  precision. 

Purity  consists  in  using  only  those  words  which  have  a 
present  and  accepted  use  in  our  language.  A  violation 
of  purity  is  called  a  barbarism.  The  chief  classes  of  bar- 
barisms are  foreign  words  not  domesticated,  obsolete  words, 
new  words  not  sanctioned  by  good  usage,  "  hybrids,"  tech- 
nical, provincial,  and  low,  colloquial,  or  vulgar  words. 

Propriety  consists  in  choosing  words  that  properly 
express  the  intended  meaning.  A  word  or  phrase  which 
does  not  convey  the  idea  intended  by  the  author  is  an 
impropriety.  A  violation  of  the  principles  of  grammar  is 
a  solecism.  The  chief  classes  of  solecism  are  due  to  the 
use  of  wrong  forms  of  the  preterite  and  perfect  parti- 
ciple ;  to  the  use  of  verbs  for  nouns,  or  adjectives  for 
adverbs ;  and  to  the  coining  of  unauthorized  verbal  forms 
from  nouns  or  adjectives.  Etymology  is  not  always  a  safe 
guide  to  propriety  because  of  the  many  changes  which 
take  place  in  the  meanings  of  words.  The  surest  way  of 
attaining  propriety  is  carefully  to  observe  and  imitate  the 
usage  of  the  best  writers  and  speakers  of  the  present  time. 

Precision  consists  in  choosing  from  several  synonyms, 
or  words  of  like  meaning,  the  best  possible  word  to 
express  the  writer's  exact  idea. 


344  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

A  good  vocabulary  should  include  both  Anglo-Saxon 
and  classical  words.  The  pupil  should  aim  constantly  to 
increase  not  only  the  number  of  words  that  he  understands, 
but  particularly  the  number  of  words  that  he  uses. 

The  chief  features  of  an  English  dictionary  are :  a  brief 
history  of  the  English  language ;  the  spelling  and  pronun- 
ciation of  words ;  the  derivation,  history,  and  meanings  of 
words ;  synonyms ;  a  dictionary  of  fictitious  persons  and 
places;  a  pronouncing  gazetteer;  a  pronouncing  bio- 
graphical dictionary;  familiar  words,  phrases,  and  prov- 
erbs from  foreign  languages ;  important  abbreviations ; 
marks  used  in  the  correction  of  proof;  and  pictorial 
illustrations. 


Part   IV 

CHAPTER    XVI 
IMPORTANT   FORMS   OF  PROSE 

Literature  is  the  fruit  of  thinking  souls.  —  Carlyle. 

I.     DESCRIPTION 

230.  Value  of  detailed  study  of  important  prose  forms.  In 
earlier  chapters  of  the  book  the  subjects  of  description, 
narration,  and  exposition  were  taken  up  in  a  practical  way 
intended  to  be  the  most  helpful  to  the  student  at  that 
period  in  his  course.  There  is  still  needed,  to  complete 
the  work  thus  begun,  a  more  detailed  study  of  the  impor- 
tant forms  of  prose.  The  student  will  find  this  broader 
treatment  advantageous  in  two  ways:  (1)  By  analysis  and 
criticism  of  standard  prose  selections  as  models  of  compo- 
sition he  will  be  able  to  improve  his  own  style;  and  (2)  By 
analysis  and  criticism,  from  the  point  of  view  of  literature, 
he  will  gain  valuable  help  in  his  study  of  the  English 
requirements. 

231.  Nature  and  value  of  description.  A  description  is,  in  a 
sense,  a  pen  picture  of  an  object,  a  place,  or  a  person,  which 
the  writer  wishes  to  present  to  the  reader's  mind.  It  gives 
the  general  character  of  the  object,  the  place,  or  the  person, 
and  its  essential  parts,  with  their  characteristics.     Its  value 

345 


346  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

is  the  same  as  that  of  the  fine  painting  or  photograph; 
namely,  that  it  increases  the  number  and  the  accuracy  of 
the  reader's  concepts,  and  often  appeals  strongly  to  his 
emotions  by  some  impression  of  beauty,  grandeur,  mystery, 
horror,  or  humor  which  it  conveys. 

232.  Kinds  of  description.  It  is  not  necessary  to  detail 
again  the  more  or  less  distinct  types  of  description.  It 
will  be  sufficient  to  refer  the  student  at  this  point  to  Sec- 
tions 92-96  of  Chapter  IV,  Section  106  of  Chapter  V, 
and  the  whole  of  Chapter  VI. 

The  objects,  places,  and  people  described  may  be  real  or 
imaginary.  If  they  are  real,  the  description  should  be 
based  on  accurate  observation,  judicious  selection,  and 
logical  arrangement.  The  point  of  view  should  be  most 
carefully  determined  and  consistently  adhered  to  through- 
out a  single  description,  unless  an  abrupt  or  definite 
change  is  made  in  order  to  serve  some  very  special  pur- 
pose. It  may,  of  course,  be  made  broad  enough  to  show 
the  appearance  of  an  object  in  different  positions,  for 
example ;  or  the  appearance  of  a  person  under  different 
conditions  (see  §  155,  2). 

If  the  objects,  scenes,  or  persons  to  be  described  war- 
rant a  free  use  of  the  imagination,  the  writer's  aim  should 
be  to  make  the  description  as  picturesque  as  is  consistent 
with  probability,  or  at  least  with  possibility.  In  writing 
on  such  a  subject  as  "  Tullia  "  (the  daughter  of  Cicero) 
the  student  should  select,  from  the  available  material 
concerning  the  appearance,  the  training,  the  habits,  and 
the  character  of  Roman  maidens  of  the  Augustan  Age, 
those  facts  that  are  most  interesting  and  most  likely  to 


IMPORTANT  FORMS   OF  PROSE  347 

apply  to  a  girl  of  TuUia's  probable  inheritance  and  social 
position.  He  will  then  supply  enough  probable  details  to 
give  the  maiden  the  vivid  reality  of  an  individual  rather 
than  the  vagueness  of  a  type. 

If  the  imagination  is  to  be  used  in  producing  a  strong 
impression  rather  than  a  detailed  picture,  the  character- 
istics selected  should  be  intensely  vivid,  few  in  number, 
and  massed  so  as  to  enhance  one  general  impression  rather 
than  to  call  attention  to  themselves  as  details. 

Very  often,  of  course,  especially  in  fiction,  description 
mingles  the  detailed  work  of  the  supposed  observer  with 
suggestive  terms.  This  kind  of  description  is  hard  to 
manage  skillfully,  but  may  be  very  effective  when  clev- 
erly handled.  In  the  following  descriptions  the  sug- 
gestive terms  are  italicized: 

Ex.  1.  Below  him  lay  Keyport  Village,  built  about  a  rocky  half- 
moon  of  a  harbor,  its  old  wharves  piled  high  with  rotting  oil-barrels 
a,\u\  flanked  ])y  empty  warehouses,  behind  which  crouched  low,  gray- 
roofed  cabins,  squuttinfj  in  a  tangle  of  streets,  with  here  and  there  a 
white  church  spire  tipped  with  a  restless  weather-vane.  Higher,  on 
the  hills,  were  nestled  some  old  homesteads  with  sloping  roofs  and 
wide  porches,  and  away  up  on  the  crest  of  the  heights,  overlooking 
the  sea,  stood  the  more  costly  structures  with  well-shared  lawns 
spotted  with  homesick  trees  from  a  warmer  clime,  their  arms  stretched 
appealingly  toward  the  sea. 

At  his  feet  lay  the  brimming  harbor  itself,  dotted  with  motionless 
yachts  and  various  fishing-craft,  all  reflected  upside  down  in  the  still 
sea,  its  glassy  surface  rippled  now  and  then  by  the  dipping  buckets  of 
men  washing  down  the  decks,  or  by  the  quick  water-spider  strokes  of 
some  lobster-fisherman,  —  the  click  of  the  row-locks  pulsating  in  the 
breathless  air. 

On  the  near  point  of  the  half-moon  stood  Keyport  Light,  —  an  old- 
fashioned  factory  chimney  of  a  Light,  —  built  of  brick,  but  painted 


348  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

snow-white  with  a  black  cigar  band  around  its  middle,  its  top  sur- 
mounted by  a  copper  lantern.  This  flashed  red  and  white  at  night 
over  a  radius  of  twenty  miles.  Braced  up  against  its  base,  for  a  better 
hold,  w^as  a  little  building  hiding  a  great  fog-horn,  which  on  thick 
days  and  nights  bellowed  out  its  welcome  to  Keyport's  best. 

On  the  far  point  of  the  moon  —  the  one  opposite  the  Light,  and 
some  two  miles  away  —  stretched  sea-meadows  broken  with  clumps 
of  rock  and  shelter-houses  for  cattle,  and  between  these  two  points, 
almost  athwart  the  mouth  of  the  harbor,  like  a  huge  motionless  whale, 
lay  Crotch  Island,  its  backbone  knotted  with  summer  cottages.  Beyond 
the  island  away  out  under  the  white  glare  of  the  risen  sun  could  be 
seen  a  speck  of  purplish-gray  fringed  with  bright  splashes  of  spray 
glinting  in  the  dazzling  light.     This  was  Shark's  Ledge. 

F.  HoPKiNsoN  Smith's  "Caleb  West,  Master  Diver. " 

Ex.  2.  A  row  of  seventeen  glorious  diamonds,  as  large  almost 
as  filberts,  encircled  not  too  tightly,  the  neck  a  first  time.  Looser, 
gracefully  fastened  thrice  to  these,  a  three-wreathed  festoon,  and 
pendants  ei\0Vig\i  (simple,  pear-shaped,  multiple  star-shaped,  or  clus- 
tering amorphous)  encircle  it,  enwreath  it,  a  second  time.  Loosest 
of  all,  softly  flowing  round  from  behind,  in  priceless  catenary,  rush 
down  two  broad  threefold  rows  ;  seem  to  throw  themselves,  round 
a  very  Queen  of  Diamonds,  on  the  bosom ;  then  rush  on,  again 
separated,  as  if  there  were  length  in  plenty ;  the  very  tassels  of  them 
were  a  fortune  for  some  men.  And  now  lastly,  two  other  inex- 
pressible threefold  rows,  also  with  their  tassels,  will,  when  the  Neck- 
lace is  on  and  clasped,  unite  themselves  behind  into  a  doubly 
inexpressible  sixfold  row ;  and  so  stream  down,  together  or  asunder, 
over  the  hind-neck,  —  we  may  fancy,  like  lambent  Zodiacal  or  A  urora- 
Borealisfre.  Carlyle's  " The  Diamond  Necklace." 

233.  Character  sketches.  Character  sketches  are  what 
their  name  indicates,  word  portraits  of  the  personalities 
of  men  and  women.  They  are  sometimes  introduced  by 
brief  descriptions  of  personal  appearance,  which  seems  to 
be  indicative  of  character,  as  in  the  example  given  below. 


IMPORTANT  FORMS   OF  PROSE  349 

Occasionally  they  contain  some  naixation  in  the  form  of 
anecdote  illustrating  special  characteristics,  or  state,  and 
i)erhaps  discuss  with  more  or  less  fullness  some  ruling 
motive  in  the  life  of  the  person  described. 

Ex.  In  personal  appearance  he  [Ibsen]  is  rather  short,  but 
impressive  and  very  vigorous.  He  has  a  peculiarly  broad  and  high 
forehead,  with  small,  keen,  blue-gray  eyes,  "which  seem  to  pene- 
trate to  the  heart  of  things."  His  firm  and  compressed  mouth  is 
characteristic  of  "  the  man  of  the  iron  will,"  as  he  has  been  called 
by  a  fellow-countryman.  Altogether  it  is  a  remarkable  and  signifi- 
cant face,  clear-seeing  and  alert,  with  a  decisive  energy  of  will  about 
it  that  none  can  fail  to  recognize.  It  is  far  indeed  from  the  typical 
*'  pure,  extravagant,  yearning,  questioning  artist's  face."  It  recalls 
rather  the  faces  of  some  of  our  most  distinguished  surgeons ;  as  is 
perhaps  meet  in  the  case  of  a  writer  who  has  used  so  skillful  and 
daring  a  scalpel  to  cut  to  the  core  of  social  diseases.  In  society, 
although  he  likes  talking  to  the  common  people,  Ibsen  is  usually 
reserved  and  silent ;  or  his  conversation  deals  with  the  most  ordi- 
nary topics.  When,  however,  he  is  among  intimate  friends,  he 
seems  to  have  some  resemblance  to  his  own  Dr.  Stockmann. 

Havelock  Ellis. 

234.  Caricature.  A  caricature  differs  from  a  character 
sketch,  in  that  it  so  exaggerates  one  or  more  traits  of  char- 
acter that  the  portrait  is  distorted.  If  the  writer's  inten- 
tion is  supposed  to  be  that  of  giving  a  fair  and  truthful 
picture  of  the  person  described,  a  caricature  is  entirely 
out  of  place  (see  §  97,  8).  Such  inappropriate  caricatures 
are  often  found  in  the  absurd  descriptions  of  political 
candidates.  Other  more  legitimate  uses  of  caricature  are 
found  in  the  writings  of  Dickens,  Thackeray,  Samuel  L. 
Clemens  (Mark  Twain),  Charles  Browne  (Artemus  Ward), 
and  Eugene  Field.     It  will  be  interesting  to  contrast  the 


350  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

method  of  description  in  the  following  caricatures  with 
the  method  used  in  the  character  sketch  of  the  example 
in  Section  233. 

Ex.  1.  The  speaker's  square  fore- finger  emphasized  his  obser- 
vation by  underscoring  every  sentence  with  a  line  on  the  school-- 
master's  sleeve.  The  emphasis  was  helped  by  the  speaker's  square 
wall  of  a  forehead,  which  had  his  eyebrows  for  a  base,  while  his 
eyes  found  commodious  cellarage  in  two  dark  caves  over-shadowed 
by  the  wall.  The  emphasis  was  helped  by  the  speaker's  mouth, 
which  was  wide,  thin,  and  hard  set.  The  emphasis  was  helped  by 
the  speaker's  voice,  which  was  inflexible,  dry,  and  dictatorial.  The 
emphasis  was  helped  by  the  speaker's  hair,  which  bristled  on  the 
skirts  of  his  bald  head  a  plantation  of  firs  to  keep  the  wind  from 
its  shining  surface,  all  covered  with  knobs,  like  the  crust  of  a  plum 
pie,  as  if  the  head  had  scarcely  warehouse  room  for  the  hard  facts 
stored  inside.  The  speaker's  obstinate  carriage,  square  coat,  square 
legs,  square  shoulders  —  nay,  his  very  neckcloth,  trained  to  take  him 
by  the  throat  with  an  unaccommodating  grasp,  like  a  stubborn  fact 
as  it  was  -  all  helped  the  emphasis.  Dj^kens'  "  Hard  Times." 

Ex.  2.  Lady  Susan  is,  as  everybody  knows  by  referring  to  the 
« British  Bible,"  a  daughter  of  the  great  and  good  Earl  Bagwig 
before  mentioned.  She  thinks  everything  belonging  to  her  the 
greatest  and  best  in  the  world.  The  first  of  men  naturally  are  the 
Buckrams,  her  own  race :  then  follow  in  rank  the  Scrapers.  The 
General  was  the  greatest  general  :  his  eldest  son.  Scraper  Buckram 
Scraper,  is  at  present  the  greatest  and  best ;  his  second  son  the  next 
greatest  and  best ;  and  herself  the  paragon  of  women. 

Indeed,  she  is  a  most  respectable  and  honorable  lady.  She  goes 
to  church,  of  course :  she  would  fancy  the  church  in  danger  if  she 
did  not.  She  subscribes  to  the  church  and  parish  charities,  and  is 
a  directress  of  many  meritorious  charitable  institutions.  She  is  a 
model  of  a  matron. 

The  tradesman  never  lived  who  could  say  that  his  bill  was  not 
paid  on  the  quarter-day.     The  beggars  of  her  neighborhood  avoid 


IMPORTANT  FORMS   OF  PROSE  351 

her  like  a  pestilence ;  for  while  she  walks  out,  her  domestic  has 
always  two  or  three  mendicity  tickets  ready  for  deserving  objects. 
Ten  guineas  a  year  will  pay  all  her  charities.  There  is  no  respec- 
table lady  in  all  London  who  gets  her  name  more  often  printed  for 
such  a  sum  of  money.  Thackeray's  -  The  Book  of  Snobs." 

EXERCISE 
I 

Write  not  less  than  four  hundred  words,  describing  each 
of  the  following  objects  in  as  interesting  a  way  as  possible, 
without  using  imagination  to  any  marked  degree : 

1.  Some  familiar  monument  or  statue. 

2.  Some  splendid  public  building. 

3.  Some  historical  or  especially  beautiful  tree. 

4.  A  street  car. 

5.  The  most  remarkable  animal  you  have  ever  seen. 

II 

Write  at  considerable  length  on  one  of  the  following 
subjects,  making  at  the  end  of  your  paper  a  list  of  the 
imaginative  parts  of  your  description: 

1.  The  Garden  of  the  Gods. 

2.  A  Miner's  Camp  at  Cape  Nome. 

3.  A  Southern  Plantation. 

4.  A  Forest  Scene  in  California. 

5.  A  Prairie  Fire. 

Ill 

Write  character  sketches  of  the  following  literary  ci*ea- 
tions,  stating  at  the  end  of  the  paper  what  impressions 
you  tried  to  make  most  prominent: 

1.  Tito  Melema,  in  George  Eliot's  "  Romola." 

2.  Colonel  Newcome,  in  Thackeray's  "  The  Newcomes." 


352  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

3.  Lady  Macbeth,  in  Shakespeare's  "  Macbeth." 

4.  Shy  lock,  in  Shakespeare's  "  The  Merchant  of  Venice." 

5.  Brutus,  in  Shakespeare's  "Julius  Caesar." 

6.  Hepsibah  Pyncheon,  in  Hawthorne's  "  The    House    of   the 
Seven  Gables." 

7.  Sir  Launfal,  in  Lowell's  "  The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal." 

8.  The  Lady,  in  Milton's  "  Comus." 

9.  Rebecca,  in  Scott's  "  Ivanhoe." 

10.  Godfrey  Cass,  in  George  Eliot's  "  Silas  Marner." 

11.  Moses,  in  Goldsmith's  "  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield." 

12.  Princess  Ida,  in  Tennyson's  "  The  Princess." 

13.  Achilles,  in  Pope's  "  Iliad." 

14.  Hawkeye,  in  Cooper's  "  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans." 

15.  The  Ancient  Mariner,  in  Coleridge's  "  The  Ancient  Mariner." 

IV 

Bring  to  class  from  your  reading  three  caricatures  that 
seem  to  you  to  be  inappropriate  because  misleading. 


Write  a  caricature  on  each  of  the  following  subjects, 
making  it  of  such  a  nature  as  not  to  be  misleading, 
but  to  justify  its  purpose  of  satire  or  good-humored 
ridicule : 

1.  A  Conceited  Fop. 

2.  A  Selfish  Coquette. 

3.  A  Miser. 

II.     NAERATION 

235.  Nature  and  value  of  narration.  Narration  is  the  rela- 
tion of  connected  events,  real  or  imaginary.  The  narra- 
tion of  real  events  should  be  direct,  accurate,  and  simple, 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  eye  witness  or  impartial 


IMPORTANT  FORMS    OF  PROSE  353 

observer  (see  §§  98-100).  Imaginative  narration  usually 
is  the  ideal  presentation  of  probable,  or  at  leas^;  possible, 
facts.  The  chief  value  of  narration  lies  in  its  interest 
and  in  its  appeal  to  the  imagination  and  emotions. 

236.  Kinds  of  narration.  The  chief  varieties  of  longer 
narration  are  histories,  biographies,  and  autobiographies, 
travels,  short  stories,  and  novels.  The  shorter  miscel- 
laneous forms  are  news  items,  anecdotes,  summaries, 
diaries,  etc. 

Histories 

237.  Definition  of  history.  History  is  often  defined  as 
"  a  record  of  past  events."  More  definitely  it  is  a  con- 
nected story  of  the  progress  of  civilization  in  a  country. 
Historians  no  longer  throw  the  chief  emphasis  upon  wars, 
but  give  due  prominence  to  the  making  of  laws,  the 
development  of  inventions,  and  the  causes  of  the  educa- 
tional, political,  and  social  changes  brought  about  by 
time. 

History  should  be  carefully  distinguished  from  tradition, 
which  is  the  oral  account  of  past  events.  Since  the 
latter  undergoes  many  changes  in  its  transmission  from 
father  to  son,  obviously  it  is  less  reliable  than  history, 
and  its  use  is  admissible  only  when  history  cannot  be 
obtained.  Tradition,  however,  may  reveal  much  concern- 
ing the  thoughts  and  customs  of  an  earlier  age. 

238.  The  historical  spirit.  Certain  essentials  are  requisite 
for  what  is  called  the  "historical  spirit."  These  are  a 
keen  perception  of  the  interesting  and  epoch-making 
events,  a  logical  grasp  of  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect, 


354  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

a  fine  sense  of  proportion,  and  a  power  of  accurate  selec- 
tion. These  traits  enable  the  writer  to  estimate  fairly  the 
meaning  of  past  events.  The  historical  spirit  is  finely 
shown  in  such  writers  as  Hume,  Gibbon,  and  Green. 

Biographies 

239.  Definition  of  biography.  A  biography  is  the  life  his- 
tory of  one  person  written  by  another.  Plutarch's  "  Lives," 
Boswell's  "  Life  of  Johnson,"  and  Hawthorne's  "Biograph- 
ical Stories"  are  familiar  illustrations  of  good  biographies 
of  different  types. 

240.  Characteristics  of  good  biographies.  Good  biographies 
must  be  accurate,  well  proportioned,  interesting,  and 
full  of  vigor.  The  difificulty  of  securing  all  these 
characteristics  in  a  single  piece  of  written  work  is  obvi- 
ous. Time,  talent,  hard  labor,  discriminating  critical 
power,  and  a  fine  sympathy  are  requisite  to  the  per- 
son who  would  do  such  a  piece  of  work.  The  young 
writer  is  not  prepared  to  execute  a  long  and  critical 
biography.  Nevertheless,  writing  of  this  kind  may  with 
profit  be  practiced  on  a  small  scale.  The  subjects  chosen 
should  lie  within  the  range  of  the  pupil's  knowledge 
and  research. 

241.  Autobiographies.  An  autobiography  is  a  life  history 
written  by  the  individual  himself.  Its  chief  charm,  unlike 
that  of  the  biography,  may  reside  in  the  personal  element. 
By  this  is  not  meant  egotism  or  unfair  distortion  of  facts, 
but  the  presentation  of  facts  colored  by  personal  feeling, 
which  is  based  on  good  judgment  and  right  principle.    The 


IMPORTANT  FORMS   OF  PROSE  356 

use  of  the  first  pei-son  favors  an  easy,  somewhat  conversa- 
tional style,  and  allows  the  introduction  of  interesting  anec- 
dotes that  would  be  out  of  place  elsewhere.  The  chief 
danger  of  an  autobiography  is  the  unconscious  lack  of  pro- 
portion. It  is  extremely  difficult  for  the  best  of  men  to  see 
themselves  as  others  see  them.  While  they  are  explain- 
ing, directly  or  indirectly,  their  motives,  ideals,  and  suc- 
cesses and  failures  from  their  point  of  view,  they  are 
frequently  failing  to  set  their  life-work  in  its  proper 
environment  and  relation  to  the  life-work  of  other  people. 
Familiar  and  interesting  autobiographies  are  those  of  Ben- 
venuto  Cellini,  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  Joseph  Jefferson. 

Travels 

242.  Nature  and  value  of  travels.  A  book  of  travel  is  a 
combination  of  description  and  narration,  which  records 
observations,  experiences,  and  impressions  obtained  during 
the  writer's  travel  in  his  own  or  a  foreign  land.  The  chief 
interest  lies  either  in  the  novelty  of  the  description  and 
narration,  and  of  the  writer's  conclusions  therefrom,  or  in 
the  charm  of  the  style.  The  first  value  is  shown  in  such 
books  as  Henry  M.  Stanley's  "  In  Darkest  Africa "  and 
Henry  Drummond's  "  Tropical  Africa " ;  and  the  second 
is  illustrated  by  Mark  Twain's  "  Innocents  Abroad." 

243.  Characteristics  of  style.  A  book  of  travel  is  intended 
primarily  to  Ixi  interesting,  accurate  in  its  observations, 
and  fair  in  its  general  statements.  It  does  not,  however, 
profess  necessarily  to  cover  the  whole  range  of  possible 
description  or  narration  connected  with  its  subject,  nor 
does  it  aim  to  give  a  scientific  treatise.     It  is  preeminently 


356  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

personal,  and  its  value  must  depend  upon  the  judgment 
and  talent  of  the  writer. 

Short  Stories 

244.  Nature  and  value  of  short  stories.  The  short  story 
is  a  novel  in  miniature,  usually  with  a  simple  but  well- 
constructed  plot,  life-like  characters,  and  good  dialogue. 
It  differs  from  a  ''sketch"  in  that,  although  it  is  short, 
it  is  compactly  constructed,  and  contains  distinct  threads 
closely  woven  together.  The  "  sketch  "  more  often  gives 
merely  a  single  impression  or  a  single  phase  of  character. 
It  bears  the  relation  to  a  short  story  that  a  few  bold  strokes 
by  way  of  outline  bear  to  the  finished  portrait. 

245.  Subject-matter  of  short  stories.  Nearly  every  subject 
that  can  be  treated  in  the  novel,  together  with  many  sub- 
jects inadmissible  in  the  more  pretentious  form  of  writing, 
has  been  treated  in  a  short  story.  The  range  extends  from 
the  ethical  to  the  merely  amusing,  from  the  sublime  to 
the  ridiculous.  Familiar  illustrations,  deserving  careful 
analysis,  are  Edward  Everett  Hale's  "  A  Man  without  a 
Country,"  Will  Dromgoole's  "The  Heart  of  Old  Hickory," 
Kipling's  ''  The  Drums  of  the  Fore  and  Aft,"  Stevenson's 
"The  Bottle  Imp,"  Ruth  McEnery  Stuart's  "Sonny's 
Diploma,"  Thomas  Nelson  Page's  "  Marse  Chan,"  and 
George  W.  Cable's  "  In  Creole  Days." 

Miscellaneous  Forms  of  Narration 

246.  News  items.  In  our  day,  when  journalism  has 
reached  a  prominence  hitherto  undreamed  of,  the  writing 
of  news  items  in  our  best  daily  papers  has  become  almost 


IMPORTANT  FOR^fS   OF  PROSE  357 

an  art.  News  items  should  be  clear,  direct,  and  vivid. 
The  following  illustrations  show  a  poor  way  and  a  better 
way  of  noting  the  same  fact  in  newspaper  form. 

Ex.  1.  The  walls  of  the  Central  Opera  House  have  often  resounded 
with  festal  mirth,  but  never  before  last  night  have  there  been  so  loud 
and  hearty  sounds  of  merrinieiit.  The  devotees  of  Terpsichore  woke 
the  echoes  until  a  late  hour  last  night.  Fully  one  hundred  couples 
were  upon  the  floor  at  one  time.  The  host  and  the  hostess,  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Brown  of  151  Lincoln  Avenue,  led  the  grand  march  with  whicli: 
the  dancing  began.  Miller's  orchestra  of  twelve  pieces  furnished 
music  for  sixteen  numbers.  T.  W.  Mabrey,  whose  catering  has  won 
him  such  well-merited  fame,  furnished  the  refreshments. 

Ex.  2.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Brown  entertained  two  hundred  of  their 
friends  last  night  at  the  Central  Opera  House.  Miller's  orchestra 
furnished  the  music  for  the  dancing  and  Mabrey  catered. 

247.  Anecdotes.  Difficult  as  it  undoubtedly  is  to  write 
a  good  long  narration,  it  is  still  more  difficult  to  write 
or  tell  successfully  a  short,  pithy  anecdote.  Some  good 
periodicals  pay  a  hundred  dollars,  or  even  more,  for 
an  original  anecdote  well  told.  The  telling  of  anec- 
dotes may  well  be  regarded  as  an  art,  and  one  to  be 
cultivated.  The  anecdote  should  have  one  striking  point, 
which  is  brought  out  strongly  and  concisely.  It  should 
end  as  soon  as  this  has  been  done.  Many  of  out  best 
anecdotes  are  of  a  humorous  or  dramatic  nature,  but 
there  may  be  other  kinds,  as  is  seen  on  page  122.  The 
following  is  an  anonymous  illustration  of  the  humorous 
kind. 

Ex.  The  palm  of  absent-mindedness  is  probably  taken  by  a 
learned  German  whom  a  Berlin  comic  paper  calls  Professor  Dusel  of 
Bonn.  One  day  the  professor  noticed  his  wife  placing  a  large  bouquet 
on  his  desk. 


358  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

"What  does  that  mean?  "  he  asked. 

"  Why !  "  she  exclaimed,  "  don't  you  know  that  this  is  the  anni- 
versary of  yoiir  marriage?" 

"  Ah,  indeed,  is  it  ?  "  said  the  professor  politely.  "  Kindly  let  me 
know  when  yours  comes  around,  and  I  will  endeavor  to  reciprocate 
the  favor  ! " 

248.  Diaries.  A  diary  is  an  intimate  record  of  personal 
observations,  experiences,  and  impressions.  Its  chief  value 
is  just  this  intimacy  and  sincerity  of  expression.  Weather 
bulletins,  moralizing,  and  long  extracts  from  books  are 
usually  to  be  avoided.  One  of  the  most  famous  and  oft- 
quoted  diaries  is  that  of  Samuel  Pepys,  giving  an  account 
of  the  stirring  events  of  his  own  day.  It  is  as  interesting 
as  many  novels,  and  well  repays  a  careful  reading.  The 
following  is  a  brief  extract. 

August  31st  (1668).  To  the  Duke  of  York's  playhouse,  and  saw 
"  Hamlet,"  which  we  have  not  seen  this  year  before  ;  or  more ;  and 
mightily  pleased  with  it,  but  above  all  with  Betterton,  the  best  part, 
I  believe  that  ever  man  acted. 

September  1.  To  the  fair,  and  there  saw  several  sights  ;  among 
others,  the  mare  that  tells  money  and  many  things  to  admiration. 

2nd.    Fast-day  for  the  burning  of  London  strictly  observed. 

3rd.  To  my  booksellers  for  "  Hobbs's  Leviathan,"  which  is  now 
mightily  called  for  :  and  what  was  heretofore  sold  for  Ss.  I  now 
give  24s.  at  the  second  hand,  and  is  sold  for  30s.,  it  being  a  book 
that  the  Bishops  will  not  let  be  printed  again. 

4th.  To  the  fair  to  see  the  play  "  Bartholomew-fair,"  with 
puppets.  And  it  is  an  excellent  place ;  the  more  I  see  it,  the  more 
I  love  the  wit  of  it ;  only  the  business  of  abusing  the  Puritans 
begins  to  grow  stale  and  of  no  use,  they  being  the  people  that  at 
last  will  be  found  the  wisest.  This  night  Knipp  tells  us  that  there 
is  a  Spanish  woman  lately  come  over  that  pretends  to  sing  as  well  as 
Mrs.  Knight ;  both  of  whom  I  must  endeavor  to  hear. 


IMPORTANT  FORMS    OF  PROSE  359 

5th.  To  Mr.  Hale's  new  house,  where  1  find  he  hath  finished 
my  wife's  hand,  which  is  better  than  the  other.  And  liere  I  find 
Harris's  picture  done  in  his  habit  of  "  Henry  the  Fifth  "  ;  mighty 
like  a  player,  but  I  do  not  think  the  picture  near  so  good  as  any  yet 
he  hath  made  for  me ;  however,  it  is  pretty  well. 

249.  Letters.  In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies letters  formed  a  distinct  class  of  prose  writing. 
The  "  Letters  of  Junius,"  the  "  Letters  of  Mary  Wortley 
Montagu,"  and  the  voluminous  letters  which  Richardson 
embodied  in  his  "  Clarissa  Harlowe,"  are  illustrations  of 
very  different  types  of  letters.  They  were  studied,  elabo- 
rate, and  rather  formal  combinations  of  description,  nar- 
ration, and  exposition.  The  following  extract  is  a  quaint 
love  letter : 

My  most  sweet  Husband  :  How  dearly  welcome  thy  kind 
letter  was  to  me,  I  am  not  able  to  express.  The  sweetness  of  it 
did  much  refresh  me.  What  can  be  more  pleasing  to  a  wife  than 
to  hear  of  the  welfare  of  her  best  beloved,  and  how  he  is  pleased 
with  her  poor  endeavors !  I  blush  to  hear  myself  commended, 
knowing  my  own  wants,  but  it  is  your  love  that  conceives  the  best, 
and  makes  all  things  seem  better  than  they  are.  I  wish  that  I  may 
be  always  pleasing  to  thee,  and  that  those  comforts  we  have  in  each 
other  may  be  daily  increased,  as  far  as  they  are  pleasing  to  (iod.  I 
will  do  any  service  wherein  I  may  please  my  good  husband.  I  con- 
fess I  cannot  do  enough  for  thee ;  but  thou  art  pleased  to  accept  the 
will  for  the  deed,  and  rest  contented. 

I  have  many  reasons  to  make  me  love  thee,  whereof  I  will  name 
two  :  First,  because  thou  lovest  God ;  and,  secondly,  because  thou 
lovest  me.  If  these  two  were  wanting,  all  the  rest  would  be  eclipsed. 
But  I  must  leave  this  discourse,  and  go  about  my  household  affairs. 
1  am  a  bad  housewife  to  be  so  long  from  them ;  but  I  must  needs 
borrow  a  little  time  to  talk  with  thee,  my  sweetheart.  The  term  is 
more  than  half  done.  I  hope  thy  business  draws  to  an  end.  It 
will  be  but  two  or  three  weeks  before  I  see  thee,  though  they  be 


360  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

long  ones.  God  will  bring  us  together  in  his  good  time  ;  for  which 
time  I  shall  pray.  I  thank  the  Lord,  we  are  all  in  health.  We  are 
very  glad  to  hear  so  good  news  of  our  son  Henry.  The  Lord  make 
us  thankful  for  all  his  mercies  to  us  and  ours.  And  thus,  with  my 
mother's  and  my  own  best  love  to  yourself  and  all  the  rest,  I  shall 
leave  scribbling.  The  weather  being  cold,  makes  me  make  haste. 
Farewell,  my  good  husband  ;  the  Lord  keep  thee. 

Your  obedient  wife, 

Margaret  Winthkop. 
Groton  (England),  November  22  (1628). 

WiNTHROp's  "The  History  of  New  England." 

EXERCISE 
I 

Bring  to  class  from  your  own  reading  an  extract  of  not 
more  than  a  page,  dealing  with  each  of  the  following  sub- 
jects in  what  you  consider  the  true  historical  spirit;  note 
the  author's  methods : 

1.  Character  Sketch  of  Some  Sovereign  or  Historical  Leader. 

2.  A  National  Crisis. 

3.  Methods  of  Reconstruction  after  Some  Revolution. 

4.  Merits  and  Defects  of  a  Certain  Form  of  Government. 

5.  Contrast  between  Two  Characters,  Events,  or  Epochs. 

II 

By  consultation  of  the  books  available  in  your  library, 
make  a  list  of  not  less  than  six  good  biographies,  •  not 
already  mentioned  in  this  text-book  ;  and,  after  reading, 
state  the  special  merits  of  one  of  these  books. 

Ill 

Write  a  brief  biography  of  each  of  the  following  person- 
ages, using  some  good  short  biography  as  a  model : 


IMPORTANT  FORMS    OF  PROSE  361 

1.  Queen  Victoria. 

2.  Ranieses  II. 

3.  Kapiolani,  Queen  of  the  Sandwich  Islands. 

4.  General  Robert  E.  Lee. 

5.  Mercedes  of  Castile. 

IV 

Write  your  autobiography,  making  it  as  truthful  and 
natural  as  possible. 

V 

Write  papers  of  six  or  seven  hundred  words  on  any  two 
of  the  following  subjects  of  imaginary  travel : 

1.  Through  Siberia  by  Sledge. 

2.  Up  the  Nile. 

3.  Around  Tokio  in  a  Jinrikisha. 

4.  Through  California  on  a  Bicycle. 

5.  Over  the  Rockies  in  an  Observation  Train. 

VI 
Write   short   stories    according   to   the   following  sug- 
gestions : 

1.  A  Story  of  Adventure. 

2.  A  Ghost  Story. 

3.  A  Spirited  Story  for  Children  (between  the  ages  of  8  and  10). 

4.  A  Story  based  on  Character  Study. 

5.  A  Humorous  Dialect  Story. 

VII 
Write  in  about  fifty  words  news  items  based  on  the 
following  suggestions : 

1.  A  High-School  Graduation. 

2.  The  Result  of  a  Football  Game. 

3.  An  Accident  which  Terminated  Happily. 

4.  The  Result  of  the  State  Elections. 

6.  The  Announcement  of  an  Approaching  Musical  Convention. 


862  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


III.     EXPOSITION 

250.  Nature  and  value  of  exposition.  Exposition  is  the 
act  of  unfolding,  defining,  explaining,  or  interpreting. 
Strictly  speaking,  a  material  object  or  an  actual  event  is 
not  a  subject  for  exposition ;  but  a  general  term,  as  fowl, 
perspective,  or  doctrme  of  expansion,  or  a  proposition,  as 
"The  Republic  is  better  than  the  Limited  Monarchy," 
or  "Honesty  is  the  Best  Policy,"  are  suitable  subjects. 
The  interpretation  of  the  individual  object  or  event  takes 
the  form  of  description  or  narration ;  the  interpretation  of 
the  general  concept  takes  the  form  of  exposition.  The 
chief  value  of  this  form  of  prose  is  that  it  presents  the  idea 
of  a  class  rather  than  an  individual,  or  that  it  sums  up  the 
legitimate  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  the  observation 
of  many  illustrations  of  a  truth. 

251.  Kinds  of  exposition.  The  chief  kinds  of  exposition 
are  essays,  orations,  and  debates.  Among  the  less  impor- 
tant forms  of  exposition,  book  reviews  are  of  the  most 
practical  value  to  the  student. 

Essays 

252.  The  informal  essay.  This  form  of  prose  was  carried 
to  a  high  degree  of  perfection  in  the  eighteenth  century 
by  the  founders  of  the  Spectator  and  the  Tatler,  Addison, 
Steele,  and  their  collaborators,  who  furnished  charming 
and  entertaining  papers  on  the  manners  and  customs  of 
their  times.  With  the  amusement,  the  thoughtful  reader 
can  find  plenty  of  instruction.  The  somewhat  informal 
and  altogether  charming  type  of  essay  is  well  illustrated 


IMPORTANT  FORMS    OF  PROSE  363 

ill  the  familiar  '*Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  Papers"  of 
Addison,  and  in  the  '^  Essays  of  Elia  "  by  Charles  Lamb. 
The  following  extract  shows  the  genei-al  style. 

Ex.  There  was  pleasure  in  eating  strawberries  before  they  became 
quite  common  ;  in  the  first  dish  of  pease,  while  they  were  yet  dear  ; 
to  have  them  for  a  nice  supper,  a  treat.  What  treat  can  we  have 
now  ?  If  we  were  to  treat  ourselves  now  —  that  is,  to  have  dainties 
a  little  above  our  means,  it  would  be  selfish  and  wicked.  It  is  the 
very  little  more  that  we  allow  ourselves  beyond  what  the  actual  poor 
can  get  at,  that  makes  what  I  call  a  treat ;  when  two  people  living 
together,  as  we  have  done,  now  and  then  indulge  themselves  in  a 
cheap  luxury,  which  both  like ;  while  each  apologizes,  and  is  willing 
to  take  both  halves  of  the  blame  to  his  single  share.  I  see  no  harm 
in  people  making  much  of  themselves,  in  that  sense  of  the  word. 
It  may  give  them  a  hint  how  to  make  much  of  others.  But  now, 
what  I  mean  by  the  word,  —  we  never  do  make  much  of  ourselves,  — 
none  but  the  poor  can  do  it.  I  do  not  mean  the  veriest  poor  of  all,^ 
but  persons  as  we  were,  just  above  poverty. 

I  know  what  you  were  going  to  say,  that  it  is  mighty  pleasant  at 
the  end  of  the  year  to  make  all  meet ;  and  much  ado  we  used  to 
have  every  Thirty-first  Night  of  December  to  account  for  our  exceed- 
ings ;  many  a  long  face  did  you  make  over  your  puzzled  accounts, 
and  in  contriving  to  make  it  out  how  we  had  spent  so  much,  or  that 
we  had  not  spent  so  much,  or  that  it  was  impossible  we  should  spend 
so  much  next  year  ;  and  still  we  found  our  slender  capital  decreas- 
ing; but  then,  betwixt  ways,  and  projects,  and  compromises  of  one 
sort  or  another,  and  talking  of  curtailing  this  charge,  and  doing 
without  that  for  the  future,  and  the  hope  that  youth  brings,  and 
laughing  spirits  (in  which  we  were  never  poor  till  now),  we  pock- 
«^ted  up  our  loss,  and  in  conclusion,  with  "lusty  brimmers"  (as  you 
used  to  quote  it  out  of  hearty^  cheerful  Mr.  Cotton,  as  you  called  him), 
we  used  to  welcome  in  "  the  coming  guest."  Now  we  have  no  reck- 
oning at  all  at  the  end  of  the  Old  Year,  —  no  flattering  promises 
about  the  New  Year  doing  better  for  us. 

Charles  Lamb's  "  Essay  on  Old  China." 


364  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

253.  The  formal  essay.  The  formal  essay  seeks  to  giYe 
definite  and  accurate  information  and  instruction.  It  is  a 
species  of  exposition,  rather  brief  in  form,  impersonal  in 
tone,  addressed  to  the  intellect,  and  aiming  to  treat  its 
subject  exhaustively,  though  not  necessarily  in  minute 
detail.  Unlike  the  informal  essay,  it  must  be  carefully 
constructed  in  outline,  method  of  development,  and  form 
of  expression.  In  the  more  didactic  forms,  the  writer 
must  be  so  thorough  a  master  of  his  subject  as  to  be  able 
to  speak  as  one  having  authority.  Macaulay,  De  Quincey, 
and  some  of  the  essayists  of  our  own  day  use  this  form  of 
writing. 

The  formal  essay  is  primarily  critical  or  scientific  in 
character,  rather  than  descriptive.  The  purpose  of  the 
critic  is  not  chiefly  to  find  fault.  His  true  function  is 
to  give  a  fair  view  of  his  subject.  A  critic  should  have  a 
definite  and  authorized  standard  of  criticism,  based  on  his 
own  thorough  investigation  and  that  of  other  specialists. 
He  should  have  keenness  of  perception  for  new  truth, 
without  a  foolish  anxiety  to  adopt  the  new  merely  because 
it  is  new.  Above  all,  he  should  be  fair-minded,  and  able 
to  give  a  judgment  unbiased  by  personal  prejudice.  The 
following  extract  illustrates  the  general  tenor  of  a  familiar 
type  of  the  critical  essay. 

Ex.  We  are  anxious  not  to  exaggerate  ;  for  it  is  exposition  rather 
than  admiration  that  our  readers  require  of  us  here  ;  and  yet  to 
avoid  some  tendency  to  that  side  is  no  easy  matter.  We  love  Burns, 
and  we  pity  him ;  and  love  and  pity  are  prone  to  magnify.  Criti- 
cism, it  is  sometimes  thought,  should  be  a  cold  business ;  we  are  not 
so  sure  of  this;  but,  at  all  events,  our  concern  with  Burns  is  not 
exclusively  that  of  critics.  True  and  genial  as  his  poetry  must 
appear,  it  is  not  chiefly  as  a  poet,  but  as  a  man,  that  he  interests 


IMPORTANT  FORMS   OF  PROSE  365 

and  affects  us.  He  was  often  advised  to  write  a  tragedy :  time  and 
means  were  not  lent  him  for  this;  but  through  life  he  enacted  a 
tragedy,  and  one  of  the  deepest.  We  question  whether  the  world 
has  since  witnessed  so  utterly  sad  a  scene ;  whether  Napoleon  him- 
self, left  to  brawl  with  Sir  Hudson  Lowe,  and  perish  on  his  rock, 
"  amid  the  melancholy  main,"  presented  to  the  reflecting  mind  such 
a  "  spectacle  of  pity  and  fear "  as  did  this  intrinsically  nobler, 
gentler,  and  perhaps  greater  soul,  wasting  itself  away  in  a  hopeless 
struggle  with  base  entanglements  which  coiled  closer  and  closer 
around  him',  till  only  death  opened  him  an  outlet.  Conquerors  are 
a  class  of  men  with  whom,  for  most  part,  the  world  could  well  dis- 
pense ;  nor  can  the  hard  intellect,  the  un sympathizing  loftiness  and 
high  but  selfish  enthusiasm  of  such  persons  inspire  us  in  general 
with  any  affection  ;  at  best  it  may  excite  amazement ;  and  their 
fall,  like  that  of  a  pyramid,  will  be  beheld  with  a  certain  sadness 
and  awe.  But  a  true  Poet,  a  man  in  whose  heart  resides  some 
effluence  of  wisdom,  some  tone  of  the  "Eternal  Melodies,"  is  the 
most  precious  gift  that  can  be  bestowed  on  a  generation  :  we  see  in 
him  a  freer,  purer,  development  of  whatever  is  noblest  in  ourselves ; 
his  life  is  a  rich  lesson  to  us;  and  we  mourn  his  death  as  that  of  a 
benefactor  who  loved  and  taught  us. 

Carlyle's  "Essay  on  Burns." 

Orations 

254.  Scope  of  the  oration.  An  oration  is  an  elaborate, 
formal  exposition  delivered  in  public  and  intended  to  con- 
vince the  intellect,  to  arouse  the  emotions,  or  to  move  the 
will.  Formerly  great  emphasis  was  laid  upon  the  appeal 
to  the  emotions,  and  far  less  pains  was  taken  to  base  that 
appeal  on  facts.  The  tendency  of  modern  oratory  is 
toward  logical  exposition,  and  away  from  emotional 
appeal.  Three  bases  of  appeal  are  frequently  used : 
appeal  to  selfish  or  unselfish  personal  interests,  to  intel- 
lect, and  to  patriotic,  domestic,  or  religious  feeling. 


366  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

255.  Familiar  forms  of  the  oration.  The  most  familiar 
forms  of  the  oration  are  the  plea,  the  political  speech,  the 
sermon,  and  the  lecture.  Although  the  student  may 
never  be  called  upon  to  write  just  these  forms,  yet  they 
are  worth  studying,  since  the  methods  employed  may  be 
used  whenever  needed  in  any  kind  of  oration. 

1.  The  plea.  This  is  most  often  used  by  the  lawyer 
when  he  is  trying  to  influence  the  verdict  of  a  judge  or 
a  jury.  There  are  various  types  of  the  modern  plea, 
but  some  suggestion  of  the  following  elements  is  com- 
monly to  be  found:  (1)  An  informal  opening  which  will 
remove  any  feeling  of  distance  or  restraint  on  the  part  of 
the  judge  or  the  jury;  (2)  A  criticism  of  the  evidence  of 
the  other  side,  in  which  it  is  attacked  as  much  as  possible; 
(3)  A  summing  up  of  the  lawyer's  own  evidence,  in  which 
the  fragments  given  by  various  witnesses  are  woven  into 
a  clear  and  forceful  argument;  (4)  A  conclusion,  which 
differs  with  the  nature  of  the  case,  varying  from  a  concise 
restatement  of  the  case  to  an  eloquent  appeal  to  the  feel- 
ings of  the  hearers.  The  most  important  requisites  of 
the  plea  are  earnestness  and  clearness.  The  following 
quotation  from  Daniel  Webster's  plea  in  the  case  of  the 
Commonwealth  vs.  Knapp  illustrates  an  effective  restate- 
ment of  the  pleader's  case. 

Ex.  I  think  you  cannot  doubt  that  there  w^as  a  conspiracy 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  committing  the  murder,  and  who  the 
conspirators  were ;  that  you  cannot  doubt  that  the  Crowninshields 
and  the  Knapps  were  the  parties  in  this  conspiracy ;  that  you  can- 
not doubt  that  the  prisoner  at  the  bar  knew  that  the  murder  was 
to  be  done  on  the  night  of  the  6th  of  April ;  that  you  cannot  doubt 
that  the  murderers  of  Captain  White  were  the  suspicious  persons 
seen  in  and  about  Brown  Street  on  that  night;    that  you   cannot 


IMPORTANT  FORMS    OF  PROSE  367 

doubt  that  Richard  Crowiiinshield  was  the  perpetrator  of  that  crime ; 
that  you  cannot  doubt  that  the  prisoner  at  the  bar  was  in  Brown 
Street  on  tliat  night.  If  there,  then  it  must  be  by  agreement,  to 
countenance,  to  aid  the  perjxitrator.  And  if  so,  then  he  is  guilty  as 
Princ'ipnl. 

Gentlemen,  your  whole  concern  should  be  to  do  your  duty  and 
leave  consequences  to  take  care  of  themselves.      Daniel  Webster. 

2.  The  political  speech.  This  form  of  oration  varies 
from  the  colloquial  sentences  of  the  stump  speaker  to 
the  polished  periods  of  the  statesman.  Not  all  the  able 
political  leaders  of  our  own  or  of  any  other  country  have 
had  careful  literary  training.  Not  all  have  had  the  instinc- 
tive power  over  the  minds  and  hearts  of  men  that  belongs  to 
the  true  orator ;  but  many  of  them,  at  least,  have  possessed 
this  gift.  The  theme  of  such  a  speech  is  usually  some 
political  issue  of  present  and  pressing  interest.  Its  pur- 
pose is  to  set  forth  the  speaker's  view  of  the  subject  as 
strongly  as  is  at  all  consistent  with  fairness,  and  to  make 
a  manly  appeal  to  the  listenere  to  act  in  the  matter  as 
befits  intelligent  citizens  and  large-minded  men.  The 
basis  of  appeal  is  patriotism,  love  of  justice,  integrity,  or 
expediency.  The  beginning  and  the  ending  are  especially 
important,  as  in  any  theme  (see  §§  146-147).  The 
thought  expressed  in  the  climax  often  lives  in  the 
hearts  of  men  long  after  the  words  have  died  away. 
The  following  extract  from  the  latter  half  of  a  famous 
speech  merits  study. 

Ex.  I  have  but  one  lamp  by  which  my  feet  are  guided  ;  and  that 
lamp  is  the  lamp  of  experience.  I  know  of  no  way  of  judging  the 
future  but  by  the  past.  And  judging  by  the  past,  I  wish  to  know 
what  there  has  been  in  the  conduct  of  the  British  ministry  for  the 


368  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

last  ten  years  to  justify  those  hopes  with  which  gentlemen  have  been 
pleased  to  solace  themselves  and  the  House  ?  Is  it  that  insidious 
smile  with  which  our  petition  has  been  lately  received?  Trust  it 
not,  sir  ;  it  will  prove  a  snare  to  your  feet.  Suffer  not  yourselves  to 
be  betrayed  with  a  kiss.  Ask  yourselves  how  this  gracious  reception 
of  our  petition  comports  with  these  war-like  preparations  which 
cover  our  waters  and  darken  our  land.  Are  fleets  and  armies  neces- 
sary to  a  work  of  love  and  reconciliation  ?  Have  we  shown  ourselves 
so  unwilling  to  be  reconciled,  that  force  must  be  called  in  to  wiu 
back  our  love  ?  Let  us  not  deceive  ourselves,  sir.  These  are  the 
implements  of  war  and  subjugation  ;  the  last  arguments  to  which 
kings  resort.  I  ask  gentlemen,  sir,  what  means  this  martial  array, 
if  its  purpose  be  not  to  force  us  to  submission?  Can  gentlemen 
assign  any  other  possible  motives  for  it?  Has  Great  Britain  any 
enemy  in  this  quarter  of  the  world,  to  call  for  all  this  accumulation 
of  navies  and  armies  ?  No,  sir,  she  has  none.  They  are  meant  for 
us  ;  they  can  be  meant  for  no  other.  They  are  sent  over  to  bind 
and  rivet  upon  us  those  chains  which  the  British  ministry  have  been 
so  long  forging.  And  what  have  we  to  oppose  to  them  ?  Shall  we 
try  argument  ?  Sir,  we  have  been  trying  that  for  the  last  ten  years. 
Have  we  anything  new  to  offer  on  the  subject?  Nothing.  We 
have  held  the  subject  up  in  every  light  of  which  it  is  capable ;  but 
it  has  been  all  in  vain.  Shall  we  resort  to  entreaty  and  humble 
supplication?  What  terms  shall  we  find  which  have  not  been 
already  exhausted?  Let  us  not,  I  beseech  you,  sir,  deceive  our- 
selves longer.  Sir,  we  have  done  everything  that  could  be  done  to 
avert  the  storm  which  is  now  coming  on.  We  have  petitioned  ;  we 
have  remonstrated  ;  we  have  supplicated  ;  we  have  prostrated  our- 
selves before  the  throne,  and  have  implored  its  interposition  to 
arrest  the  tyrannical  hands  of  the  ministry  and  parliament.  Our 
petitions  have  been  slighted ;  our  remonstrances  have  produced 
additional  violence  and  insult ;  our  supplications  have  been  disre- 
garded ;  and  we  have  been  spurned,  with  contempt,  from  the  foot 
of  the  throne.  In  vain,  after  these  things,  may  we  indulge  the  fond 
hope  of  peace  and  reconciliation.  There  is  no  longer  any  room  for 
hope.  If  we  wish  to  be  free  —  if  we  mean  to  preserve  inviolate  those 
inestimable  privileges  for  which  we  have  been  so  long  contending^- 


IMPORTANT  FORMS   OF  PROSE  369 

if  we  mean  not  basely  to  abandon  the  noble  struggle  in  which 
we  have  been  so  long  engaged,  and  which  we  have  pledged  ourselves 
never  to  abandon  until  the  glorious  object  of  our  contest  shall  be 
obtained,  we  must  fight !  I  repeat  it,  sir,  we  must  fight !  An 
appeal  to  arms  and  to  the  God  of  Hosts  is  all  that  is  left  us  ! 

It  is  in  vain,  sir,  to  extenuate  the  matter.  Gentlemen  may  cry 
peace,  peace  —  but  there  is  no  peace.  The  war  is  actually  begun  ! 
The  next  gale  that  sweeps  from  the  north  will  bring  to  our  ears  the 
clash  of  resounding  arms  !  Our  brethren  are  already  in  the  field  ! 
Why  stand  we  here  idle ?  What  is  it  that  gentlemen  wish?  What 
would  they  have  ?  Is  life  so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be 
purchased  at  the  price  of  chains  and  slavery  ?  Forbid  it.  Almighty 
God  !  I  know  not  what  course  others  may  take  ;  but  as  for  me, 
give  me  liberty,  or  give  me  death ! . 

Patrick  Henry's  "  Speech  in  the  Convention  of  Delegates, 
March  28,  1775." 

Suggestions 

(1)  What  action  is  the  speaker  trying  to  influence?  (2)  What 
methods  of  appeal  does  he  use  ?  (3)  In  what  particulars  does  he  make 
use  of  their  common  experience?  (4)  W^here  and  how  does  he  use 
figures  of  metaphor,  allusion,  interrogation,  exclamation,  and  climax 
(see  Chapter  XIX)  ?  (5)  Show  the  effect  of  variety  in  the  length 
of  the  sentences.  (6)  What  sentences  especially  well  illustrate  the 
requirements  of  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis  ?  (7)  Discuss  the 
use  of  purity,  propriety,  and  precision  in  the  matter  of  words. 
(8)  What  is  the  proportion  of  Anglo-Saxon  words,  and  why? 

3.  The  sermon.  In  general  this  form  of  oration  is  a 
discourse  based  on  a  text  from  the  Bible,  and  appealing 
to  conscience  and  religious  instinct.  The  modern  sermon 
is  usually  brief,  logical,  practical,  and  tinged  with  deep 
reverence  and  quiet  feeling.  Formal  divisions,  as  Firstly, 
Secondly,  etc.,  are  no  longer  used,  but  the  outline  should 


870  COMPOSITION  AND  liHETORIC 

be  very  clear  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker,  that  it  may  be 
promptly  apparent  to  the  listener.  The  following  extract 
from  a  pupil's  notebook,  giving  an  outline  written  the  day 
after  the  sermon  had  been  heard,  illustrates  a  general  plan 
of  this  kind  of  oratory. 

Text:  "Let  no  man  despise  thy  youth."    I  Timothy  iv,  12. 
Subject:  The  Opportunities  of  Youth. 

(1)  Introduction.     Ever-increasing  prominence  of 
young  people  in  many  important  fields  of  usefulness. 

(2)  Youth  is  a  time  of  special  opportunity. 

1.  Health  and  vigor  make  hard  work  possible  and  enjoy- 
able. 

2.  Enthusiasm  makes  all  things  seem  possible. 

3.  High  ideals  have  not  been  lowered  by  many  temp- 
tations. 

(3)  The  time  of  opportunity  is  the  time  of  respon- 


1.  To  train  patiently  and  thoroughly  under  the  present 
leaders  for  intelligent,  faithful  service. 

2.  To  carry  to  a  grander  development  the  departments  of 
work  already  established. 

3.  To  create  as  fast  as  is  expedient  new  lines  of  work. 

4.  To  use  popularity  for  unselfish  helpfulness. 

(4)  Conclusion.  Each  young  person  should  ascer- 
tain what  is  his  own  particular  gift,  cultivate  it  care- 
fully, and  use  it  to  the  best  possible  advantage. 
"Neglect  not  the  gift  that  is  in  thee." 

4.  The  lecture.  Many  so-called  lectures  are  mere  desul- 
tory talks,  collections  of  anecdotes  strung  on  a  very  slender 
thread  afforded  by  the  subject.    A  good  lecture  should  have 


IMPORTANT  FORMS    OF  PROSE  371 

as  definite  and  logical  an  outline,  and  should  be  in  every 
way  as  practical,  as  any  other  form  of  oratory.  It  often 
closely  resembles  an  essay,  with  such  modifications  as 
are  natural  when  the  words  are  to  be  heard  instead  of 
read.  Its  scope  is  broad ;  for  the  subjects  may  be  drawn 
from  every  possible  field,  the  appeal  may  be  made  to 
every  conceivable  motive,  and  the  style  may  range  from 
the  humorous  to  the  sublime.  The  appeal  is  rather 
impersonal,  indirect,  and  subtle.  Sometimes,  indeed,  it  is 
entirely  omitted,  especially  when  the  subject  is  merely 
entertaining.  The  following  brief  selections  give  interest- 
ing examples  of  this  form  of  oratory. 

Kx.  1.  T  have  in  this  lecture  endeavored  to  indicate  some  of  tlie 
salient  points  of  Browning's  message.  I  think  I  have  shown  that 
his  great  thoughts  shine  over  the  troubled  seas  of  speculative  thought 
{is  a  Pharos,  whose  light  is  strong  and  clear  enough  for  our  j)resent 
needs.  In  the  many  extracts  I  have  read  you  will  not  have  failed  to 
notice  abundant  evidence  of  his  manly,  strong,  life-full,  thoughtful, 
deep  personality.  If  I  have  adduced  any  reasons  to  lead  to  a  closer, 
more  earnest  acquaintance  with  him  on  the  part  of  any  here  present, 
I  hope  they  will  not  be  deterred  by  the  prevalent  idea  of  his  obscurity, 
but  go  boldly  to  work  and  fetch  out  the  precious  treasures  for  them- 
selves. 

Edward  Beri>oe^8  Lecture  on  ''Browning's  Message  to  His  Time." 

Ex.  '2.  When  we  come  to  think  about  the  matter,  it  is  plain 
that  industrial  partnerships  are  founded  upon  the  surest  principle 
of  human  nature  —  self-interest.  There  can,  I  think,  be  but  four 
motives  which  can  operate  upon  a  workman. 

1.  Fear  of  dismissal. 

2.  Hope  of  getting  higher  wages  or  better  employment. 

3.  Good-will  to  his  employer,  and  desire  to  fulfill  his  bargain 
honestly. 

4.  Direct  self-interest  in  the  work. 


372  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

The  first  of  these,  no  doubt,  is  sufficient  to  prevent  the  workman 
from  being  much  below  the  average  of  efficiency,  but  it  cannot  do 
more.  The  second  is  a  powerful  incentive  where  an  employment  allows 
of  many  grades,  and  promotion  is  free  and  depends  on  merit.  In  many 
of  the  ordinary  handicraft  employments,  however,  both  these  motives 
are  to  a  great  extent  relaxed  by  the  regulations  of  the  unions,  which 
favor  the  equal  payment  of  all  moderately  efficient  workmen,  and 
yield  a  strong  support  to  those  who  are  in  their  opinion  wrongfully 
dismissed.  The  third  motive  is  really  operative  to  a  greater  extent 
than  we  should  suppose,  but  is  not  one  that  we  can  expect  to  trust 
to.  The  fourth  motive  —  direct  interest  in  the  work  done  —  is 
entirely  excluded  by  the  present  mode  of  payment,  which  leaves  all 
«  profit  to  the  master.  It  is  upon  this  motive  that  the  partnership 
principle  depends.  So  far,  indeed,  is  the  principle  from  being  a  new 
one,  that  it  lies  at  the  basis  of  all  ordinary  relations  of  trade  and 
private  enterprise.  The  very  opponent  of  industrial  partnerships 
argues  upon  the  ground  that  the  employer  must  have  all  the  profit 
because  it  is  requisite  to  compensate  him  for  all  the  trouble  and 
skill  expended  in  management;  in  short,  that  he  must  have  pow- 
erful self-interest  in  the  matter.  But  it  may  be  safely  answered 
that  the  men  have  so  many  means  of  injuring  it  by  strikes  and 
contentions,  that  it  is  entirely  for  the  interest  of  the  employer  to 
buy  their  exertions  and  good-will  with  a  share  of  profits. 

W.  Stanley  Jevons'  "  Industrial  Partnerships." 

256.  Material  for  the  oration.  The  sources  of  material  for 
the  oration  are  much  the  same  as  those  for  the  theme  (see 
-  §§  129-132) :  (1)  Personal  observation  of  events  and  facts, 
together  with  their  meaning;  (2)  Discussion  of  the  facts 
and  their  meaning  with  those  who  have  a  wider  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject ;  (3)  Careful  study  of  available  printed 
matter  as  a  basis  of  revision  or  accentuation  of  one's  own 
opinion  on  the  subject  to  be  presented.  To  these  may  be 
added  a  study  of  human  nature  as  a  basis  of  effective 
appeal. 


IMPORTANT  FORMS    OF  PROSE  373 

257.  Steps  in  the  preparation  of  the  oration.  The  steps  in 
the  preparation  of  the  oration  are  also  practically  the  same 
as  those  in  the  preparation  of  the  theme  (see  §  126). 

1.  Choice  and  limitation  of  the  subject  The  subject 
chosen  should  be  interesting  and  reasonably  familiar  to 
the  writer ;  suitable  both  to  the  audience  and  the  occasion ; 
and  of  enough  importance  to  make  possible  future  action 
in  regard  to  the  matter  discussed  of  real  moment.  When 
the  subject  has  been  carefully  chosen,  by  the  successive 
rejection  of  unsuitable  subjects,  it  should  be  so  limited  as 
to  be  within  the  range  of  treatment  in  the  given  time. 

2.  Selection  of  the  material.  This  material  may  be  taken 
from  the  general  sources  mentioned  in  Section  256.  The 
special  facts  to  be  used  will  be  determined  by  careful 
thought  and  judicious  note-taking.  The  library  should  be 
used  freely,  as  suggested  in  Sections  133-138. 

3.  Preparation  of  the  outline.  The  outline  may  be  brief, 
as  in  the  example  quoted  in  Section  255,  3,  but  it  should  be 
very  definite  and  logical. 

4.  Development  of  the  oration.  This  follows  the  plan  of 
the  development  of  the  theme  outline.  Unity,  coherence^ 
and  emphasis  in  the  sentence,  the  paragraph,  and  the  whole 
oration  should,  of  course,  receive  the  most  careful  attention. 

5.  Revision.     In  the  revision  the  student  should  criti 
cise  his  own  work  closely,  to  see  if  he  has  chosen  the 
best  methods  of  appeal,  the  most  logical  arrangement  of 
the  parts,  and  the  best  possible  words. 

Suppose,  for  example,  that  the  student  is  to  write  an 
oration  of  seven  hundred  words,  on  a  subject  chosen  by 
himself.  After  the  rejection  of  several  subjects,  as  being 
uninteresting,   hackneyed,   or  beyond  his  reach,  he  may 


374  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETOBIC 

decide  to  write  about  The  Literary  Society.  The  subject 
is  too  broad  and  general,  sO  he  limits  it  in  this  way : 
''  The  Scope  of  the  High-School  Literary  Society."  He 
may  have  a  strong  desire  to  see  such  a  society  started  in 
his  own  High  School.  He  thinks  carefully  about  his  own 
views  and  notes  them  somewhat  in  this  way : 

(1)  Pleasant  social  intercourse. 

(2)  Individual  and  class  competition. 

(3)  Study  in  a  new  and  attractive  form. 

He  may  be  invited  to  attend  meetings  of  the  literary 
societies  of  other  high  schools.  At  one  of  these  meet- 
ings he  may  see  the  work  of  a  small  and  exclusive  number 
of  congenial  young  people,  who  meet  to  read  and  discuss 
modern  fiction.  At  another  he  observes  the  more  formal 
work  of  a  society  which  includes  half  the  school.  The 
rules  of  parliamentary  procedure  are  carefully  observed; 
the  program  includes  a  brief  report  of  current  political 
topics,  a  paper  on  the  new  books  of  the  month,  and  a 
debate  on  the  subject,  "  Resolved  that  the  free  public 
library  is  a  more  potent  factor  in  education  than  the  free 
public  school."  The  student  may  be  somewhat  puzzled, 
thinking  that  one  method  of  conducting  the  literary 
society  is  too  narrow,  and  the  other  too  broad,  to  suit  him. 
He  next  consults  his  own  principal  and  other  men  who 
have  observed  the  working  of  such  societies.  When  he 
finds  sufficient  material  to  help  him,  he  turns  his  thought 
toward  making  his  outline.  The  following  is  one  pupil's 
outline  on  this  subject. 


IMPORTANT  FORMS    OF  PROSE  375 

Thk  Sc<>fk  of  the  High-School  Literary  Society 

I.   Membership. 
II.   Objects. 

1.  Breadth  of  culture. 

2.  Individuality  of  expression. 

3.  Social  relaxation. 

III.  Frequency  of  meetings. 

IV.  Programs. 

After  the  development  of  these  topics  into  paragraphs 
of  suitable  length,  the  work  was  ready  for  completion  by 
revision. 

Debates 

258.  Scope  of  the  debate.  The  debate  is  based  on  exposi- 
tion, but  has  peculiarities  of  form  which  are  of  so  much 
importance  that  it  is  sometimes  classified  by  itself.  A 
debate  furnishes  the  arguments,  or  logically  reasoned 
expositions,  upon  both  sides  of  a  question.  The  reason- 
ing should  be  as  logical  and  inevitable  as  possible.  The 
speakers  on  each  side  endeavor  to  show  the  weakness  or 
falsity  of  their  opponents'  position  as  well  as  to  maintain 
their  own. 

259.  Subjects  for  debate.  Much  loss  of  time  and  bitter- 
ness of  feeling  would  be  prevented,  if  disputants  remem- 
bered that  some  subjects  are  unsuited  for  argumentation. 
A  subject  for  debate  should  have  two  sides,  upon  either  of 
which  much  may  reasonably  l)e  said.  Moreover,  it  should 
be  a  subject  about  which  it  is  possible  to  get  sufficiently 
reliable  facts  to  form  a  basis  for  argument.  This,  however, 
does  not  exclude  every  subject  that  calls  for  the  use  of  the 
imagination. 


376  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

It  often  happens  in  a  debate  that  the  two  sides  fail  to 
"clinch."  The  affirmative  discusses  one  phase  of  the 
subject,  the  negative  discusses  another;  the  listeners  feel 
that  the  contestants  are  not  face  to  face,  discussing  pre- 
cisely the  same  proposition.  Such  debates  often  result 
from  failure  to  limit  the  subject  properly,  or  from  failure 
to  agree  on  a  definition  of  each  term  in  the  subject. 

260.  Two  methods  of  reasoning.  Two  methods  are  in  gen- 
eral use  :  the  deductive  and  the  inductive.  Each  of  these 
may  be  formally  stated  by  a  syllogism.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  this  is  usually  implied  instead  of  being  directly  stated. 
By  the  former  method  a  syllogism  consists  of  a  general 
statement  called  a  major  premise,  a  specific  statement 
called  a  minor  premise,  and  a  resulting  proposition  called 
a  conclusion.  The  following  is  a  syllogism  arranged 
according  to  the  deductive  method  of  reasoning: 

Major  premise  :  All  men  are  mortal. 
Minor  premise  :  John  is  a  man. 
Conclusion  :  John  is  mortal. 

The  chief  danger  with  this  formal  method  is  that  the 
general  statement  which  constitutes  the  major  premise 
may  be  false  or  inadequate. 

The  inductive  method  is  much  used  by  scientific  men  to- 
day. In  this  case  the  syllogism  consists  of  a  major  premise, 
stating  individual  related  facts  which  have  been  observed ; 
a  minor  premise,  consisting  of  a  generalization  about  those 
facts ;  and  a  conclusion  drawn  from  those  premises.  The 
following  is  a  correct  syllogism  of  this  kind  : 

Major  premise  :  Oak,  pine,  maple,  ash,  etc.,  will  burn. 
Minor  premise :  Oak,  pine,  maple,  ash,  etc.,  are  wood. 
Conclusion :  All  kinds  of  wood  will  burn. 


IMPORTANT  FORMS    OF  PROSE  377 

The  chief  danger  in  this  method  of  reasoning  is  that  the 
reasoner  cannot  always  observe  facts  enough  to  warrant 
an  accurate  conclusion. 

261.  Outline  of  the  debate.  After  the  choice  and  limita- 
tion of  the  subject,  and  the  division  of  the  work  among 
the  disputants,  the  next  step  is  the  preparation  of  the 
outline,  or  brief,  for  each  side.  This  outline  contains 
the  main  points  that  each  side  will  attempt  to  prove, 
and  the  line  of  argument  to  be  followed  in  refuting  the 
arguments  of  the  opposing  disputants.  Below  are  given 
the  briefs  prepared  by  the  leaders  of  the  affirmative 
and  the  negative  on  the  following  question :  "  Resolved 
that  compulsory  laws  regarding  education  should  be 
passed." 

OUTLLJi^E   FOR   THE   AFFIRMATIVE 

1.  Introduction.     Nature   of   the  compulsory  laws    in 

the  state  of .     Right  of  the  state  to  do  all  that  is 

necessary  for  its  own  safety. 

2.  Dangers  arising  from  an  uneducated  citizenship. 

3.  An  educated  citizenship  cannot  be  secured  if  edu- 
cation is  left  to  parental  caprice ;  for  some  parents  are 
neglectful,  others  are  avaricious,  and  others  criminal. 

4.  An  educated  citizenship  cannot  be  secured  merely 
by  providing  free  public  schools,  for  not  all  will  attend 
voluntarily. 

5.  An  educated  citizenship  cannot  be  secured  through 
the  private  schools,  for  not  all  of  them  teach  what 
children  most  need  to  prepare  them  for  the  duties  of 
citizenship. 


378  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

6.  Conclusion.  Attendance  upon  public  schools  or  upon 
private  schools  approved  by  state  authorities  should  be 
compulsory. 

OUTLINE   FOR   THE   NEGATIVE 

1.  Introduction.  Every  man  has  the  right  to  independ- 
ence of  action  in  matters  which  affect  only  himself. 
Results  of  a  contrary  doctrine. 

2.  An  educated  citizenship  can  be  secured  if  education 
is  left  to  parents,  for  all  parents  take  pride  in  having  their 
children  intelligent,  prepared  to  earn  good  wages,  and 
supplied  with  new  resources  and  pleasures. 

3.  A  much  better  education  will  be  secured  by  pupils 
who  attend  school  because  they  are  interested  in  their 
work  than  by  those  who  are  forced  against  their  will. 
Provide  the  schools  and  make  them  so  interesting  and 
profitable  that  the  pupils  will  be  glad  to  attend. 

4.  Private  schools  develop  individuality  in  a  way  that 
is  unknown  in  large  schools  of  uniform  curriculum. 

6.  Conclusion.  Compulsory  education  laws  are  not 
needed,  and  therefore  should  not  be  passed. 

262.  Order  of  procedure  in  debate.  The  order  varies  some- 
what with  the  number  of  disputants,  but  the  following  is 
often  used  when  there  are  four  speakers. 

1.  First  speaker  on  the  affirmative,  who  states  the  case, 
outlines  the  argument  for  the  affirmative,  and  proves  all 
the  points  in  the  direct  argument  of  his  side. 

2.  First  speaker  on  the  negative,  who  outlines  the 
argument  for  the  negative,  and  proves  all  of  the  points  in 
the  direct  argument  of  his  side. 


IMPORTANT  FORMS    OF  PROSE  379 

0.  Second  speaker  on  the  negative,  wiio  refutes  or  dis- 
proves the  arguments  of  the  alhrmative. 

4.  Second  speaker  on  the  affirmative,  who  refutes  the 
arguments  of  the  negative,  and  sums  up  the  case  as  he 
thinks  it  has  been  proved  by  his  own  side.  No  new 
arguments  Jire  allowed  to  be  introduced  by  this  speaker, 
as  the  other  side  would  have  no  opportunity  to  answer. 

EXERCISE 

I 

Bring  to  class  from  your  reading  or  your  own  thought 
five  subjects  which  you  consider  unsuited  for  debate. 
Give  the  reasons  for  your  objections  to  them. 

II 
Bring  to  class  ten  good  subjects  for  debate. 

Ill 

Write  three  syllogisms  following  the  deductive  method 
of  reasoning,  and  three  following  the  inductive  method  of 
reasoning. 

IV 

Write  the  outlines  for  both  sides  of  a  debate  on  each 
of  the  following  subjects  : 

1.  Resolved  that  Lor<l  Bacon  wrote  the  plays  attrihuted  to 
Sliakespeare. 

2.  Resolved  that  vivisection  is  justifiable. 

3.  Resolved  that  the  American  Republic  will  cease  to  exist  before 
the  close  of  this  century. 


380  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


Outline  the  line  of  argument  to  be  followed  by  either 
the  affirmative  or  the  negative  in  a  debate  on  each  of  the 
following  subjects : 

1.  Resolved  that  the  Government  should  control  the  railroads. 

2.  Resolved  that  every  great  man  is  largely  the  product  of  his  age. 

3.  Resolved  that  an  early  change  in  the  government  of  Russia  is 
inevitable. 

4.  Resolved  that  "  the  world  owes  me  a  living." 

5.  Resolved  that  the  press  is  the  greatest  public  benefactor. 

Miscellaneous  Forms  of  Exposition 

263.  Newspaper  editorials.  With  each  succeeding  year 
American  journalism  becomes  more  and  more  of  a  power. 
The  able  newspaper  editor,  in  his  leading  articles,  does 
much  to  mold  public  thought  regarding  politics,  educa- 
tion,  sociology,  dramatic  and  musical  criticism,  phil- 
anthropy, and  theology.  His  work,  unlike  that  of  the 
reporter,  is  commenting  upon  the  meaning  of  the  news  of 
the  day  rather  than  merely  stating  that  news.  He  shows 
the  relation  of  isolated  events  to  one  another  and  to  the 
world's  progress,  and  helps  to  explain  the  significance  of 
events  as  men  with  a  narrower  view  would  be  unable  to 
do.  Sometimes  his  comments  are  humorous  or  satirical, 
sometimes  they  are  serious,  even  dramatic  ;  in  all  cases 
they  should  be  as  fair  and  as  honest  as  possible. 

The  editor  must  be  a  man  of  wide  knowledge  and  great 
versatility ;  he  must  keep  abreast  of  all  the  news  in  order 
to  understand  promptly  the  full  force  of  any  particular 
item  of  it ;  he  must  watch  every  rising  cloud  in  the  social 
or  political  sky  and  calculate  its  probable  effect ;  he  must 


IMPORTANT  FORMS   OF  PROSE  381 

be  a  student  of  history,  art,  philosophy,  literature,  medi- 
cine, law,  and  theology.  He  must  know  not  only  books, 
but  also  men  and  affairs.  The  following  brief  extracts 
from  modern  editorials  give  some  suggestion  of  the  scope 
of  the  editor's  work. 

Ex.  1.  This  convention  means,  in  settling  up  Cuban  affairs,  to 
settle  them  up  for  good.  It  means  to  establish  and  to  preserve  for 
all  time  the  beneficent  results  of  all  that  it  has  done.  It  means  not 
to  reverse  and  to  repudiate,  but  to  ratify  and  to  set  a  final  seal  upon 
the  consistent  policy  of  three-quarters  of  a  century.  And  in  so  doing- 
it  has  the  grateful  assurance  that  it  is  doing  the  best  possible  thing 
not  only  for  itself  but  likewise  for  Cuba  and  for  all  whom  it  may  con- 
cern. —  New  York  Tribune. 

Ex.  2.  In  order  to  hold  their  business,  which  is  being  rapidly 
cut  in  upon,  and  to  a  greater  extent  each  year,  especially  in  the  East, 
by  the  widely  extending  trolley  systems,  the  steam  roads  must  con- 
tinue to  make  their  lines  more  attractive.  All  else  being  equal,  who 
would  not  prefer  to  travel  by  trolley  along  picturesque  country  roads, 
to  burrowing  for  hours  through  raw  gravel  cuts,  between  endless 
lines  of  telegraph  poles,  at  every  stop  a  pile  of  grimy  bricks  and 
mortar  or  a  wooden  packing  box  standing  in  a  desert  of  cinders  and 
sand  ?  This,  of  course,  is  an  extreme  which  is  happily  seldom  found 
to-day,  and  yet  it  is  not  purely  imaginary,  more 's  the  pity.  Almost 
every  road  is  doing  something  in  the  way  of  adornment,  at  important 
stations  at  least,  with  grass  and  flowers,  and  occasionally  with  shrub- 
bery and  trees,  but  almost  nothing  is  being  done  to  improve  the  road- 
side condition  along  the  line  between  stations.  —  Boston  Evening 
Transcript. 

Ex.  3.  It  is  our  duty  to  send  out  of  the  city  all  those  dependent 
upon  others  for  shelter,  except  those  needed  for  the  work  in  hand. 
Dependent  non-workers,  women  and  children,  can  be  sheltered  and 
cared  for  elsewhere  —  they  must  be.  Night  and  day  we  must  labor  : 
conjfort  and  care  cannot  be  given  others  except  at  the  cost  of  the 
workers,  because  there  is  not  room  for  all. 


382  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

So  should  the  dependent  and  the  helpless  go  elsewhere  till  Jack- 
sonville is  again  prepared  to  care  for  and  comfort  them.  Give  up 
the  city  for  the  present  to  the  workers.  Visitors  who  insist  on 
coming  to  see  the  ruins  should  gaze  their  fill  and  return  — the  help 
is  not  here  to  care  for  them.  Our  hotels  and  our  churches  have  been 
wiped  out  —  our  task  is  one  grim  enough  to  try  the  strength  of  the 
strongest.  Let  us  have  no  distraction  that  excuse  may  be  made  for 
the  neglect  of  duty.  Banish  the  amenities  of  life  that  we  may  the 
earlier  resume  them,  and  more  deeply  appreciate  them  hereafter.  — 
Florida  Times -Union  and  Citizen. 

264.  Book  reviews.  Book  reviewing  is  a  form  of  critical 
exposition,  and  its  scope  is  a  rather  narrow  one  ;  but  in 
this  age  of  many  books  and  countless  book  reviews  it 
is  well  worth  consideration. 

One  important  aim  of  a  good  book  review  is  to  give 
in  a  nutshell  the  general  scope  and  value  of  recently- 
published  books.  Many  people  have  neither  time  nor 
inclination  to  read  the  new  books ;  but  they  are  unwilling 
to  appear  ignorant  of  what  others  are  discussing,  and  so 
are  glad  to  rely  upon  the  authority  of  secondhand  infor- 
mation to  be  obtained  from  book  reviews.  Good  reviews 
are  helpful  in  two  ways :  (1)  they  guide  the  reader  in  the 
selection  of  books  for  his  own  reading  ;  (2)  they  give  him 
that  knowledge  about  books,  as  distinguished  from  knowl- 
edge of  books,  which  is  just  as  legitimate  as  knowledge 
about  anything  else. 

There  are  various  methods  of  writing  a  review,  the 
appropriateness  of  any  one  method  being  dependent 
partly  upon  the  nature  of  the  book.  If  the  book  is 
an  elaborate  scientific  treatise,  for  example,  it  may  he 
sufficient  to  give  the  main  divisions  and  a  few  important 
generalizations.     If  it  is  a  book  of  criticism,  the  review 


IMPORTANT  FORMS   OF  PROSE  383 

may  give  the  canons  of  judgment,  the  point  of  view  of 
the  writer,  and  a  defense  or  attack  on  the  criticism.  By 
far  the  greatest  number  of  book  reviews  are  of  novels. 
These  reviews,  as  a  rule,  suggest  enough  of  the  plot  to 
arouse  interest  and  not  enough  to  make  the  reader  feel 
that  it  is  unnecessary  to  read  the  novel  itself.  Some- 
times a  brief  discussion  of  the  prominent  character  fol- 
lows, together  Avith  a  condensed  statement  of  the  value 
of  the  book.  In  justice  to  the  publisher  the  book  review 
also  states  the  name  of  the  publisher,  the  price  of  the 
lx)ok,  and  some  of  the  special  beauties  of  the  mechanical 
work  upon  it.  The  following  extracts  show  different 
methods  of  writing  book  reviews. 

Ex.  1.  Doom  Castle.  By  Xeil  Miinro.  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co., 
New  York.     5x8  in.     385  pages.     ^1.50. 

This  story  is  a  romance  pure  and  simple  without  any  underlying 
motive  save  that  of  pleasing.  This  it  accomplishes  to  a  degree 
nmch  above  the  common.  Doom  Castle  is  an  old  fortress  off  the 
coast  of  Scotland,  which  one  feels  from  the  first  is  haimted  by 
the  ghosts  of  countless  events  and  traditions.  It  is  in  a  state  of 
advanced  decay,  and  tallies  exactly  with  the  fortunes  of  its  owner. 
There  is  a  mingling  of  plots  rather  than  one  supreme  plot,  and  the 
mystery  is  likely  to  defy  the  most  experienced  romance-reader. 
Tlie  hero  is  a  young  and  chivalrous  Frenchman  ;  the  heroine,  the 
daughter  of  the  Lord  of  Doom.  There  are  numerous  clansmen  and 
hangers-on,  who  treat  us  to  plenty  of  rich  idiomatic  speech,  racy  of 
highland  Gaelic  origin.  We  feel  that  this  talk  is  done  by  one  to 
the  manner  bom  and  not  manufactured  by  guesswork.  So  nmch 
trash  now  passes  current,  especially  for  Scotch  or  Irish  brogue,  that 
it  is  a  positive  pleasure  to  come  upon  a  writer  who  reveals  a  real 
knowledge  of  the  racial  conditions  out  of  which  idiomatic  speech 
grows.  —  The  Outlook. 


384  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

Ex.  2.  Chinese  Mother  Goose  Rhymes.  Translated  and  illustrated 
by  Isaac  Taylor  Headland  of  Peking  University.  New  York,  Flem- 
ing H.  Revell,  1900,  pp.  160. 

The  author  of  this  profusely  illustrated  volume  tells  us  that  "  the 
entire  work  is  due  to  the  fact  that  our  attention  was  called  by  Mrs. 
C.  H.  Fenn  to  her  old  nurse's  repeating  these  rhymes  to  her  little 
boy,"  and  declares  not  only  that  "there  are  probably  more  nursery 
rhymes  in  China  than  can  be  found  in  America,"  —  his  own  collec- 
tion of  Chinese  rhymes  numbers  more  than  six  hundred  —  but  also 
that  "there  is  no  language  in  the  world,"  he  ventures  to  believe, 
"  which  contains  children's  songs  expressive  of  more  keen  and 
tender  affection  than  some  of  these  here  given."  The  translation  is 
one  "  which  is  fairly  true  to  the  original,  and  will  please  English- 
speaking  children,"  and  the  Chinese  text  of  each  .rhyme  (not  trans- 
literated, however)  is  given.  In  this  volume  one  hundred  and  forty 
rhymes  are  printed,  fairly  representative  of  the  actions  and  environ- 
ment of  children  in  China.  The  satire  and  ethics  of  some  of  these 
rhymes  are  very  interesting,  while  their  appeals  to  the  weaknesses 
and  to  the  strong  points  of  children  often  equal,  if  they  do  not 
excel,  the  corresponding  characteristics  of  the  rhymes  of  the  white 
race.     The  "  Pat-a-cake  "  rhyme  — 

Pat-a-cake,  pat-a-cake, 
Little  girl  fair, 

There 's  a  priest  in  the  temple 
Without  any  hair. 

You  take  a  tile, 
And  I'll  take  a  brick, 
And  we  '11  hit  the  priest, 
In  the  back  of  the  neck  — 


being  aimed  at  native  priests,  must  not  be  held  responsible  for  the 
current  troubles  in  the  Celestial  Empire.  The  doctors  and  mer- 
chants figure  in  an  amusing  fashion  in  some  of  the  rhymes.  Some 
of  the  tenderness  displayed  toward  animals  and  insects  would 
delight  the  good  St.  Francis.     This  tenderness  the  plant  world  also 


IMPORTANT  FORMS   OF  PROSE  385 

shares,  and  all  nature  lives  for  the  little  child.  What  could  be 
more  naively  human  than  rhymes  like  these,  — 

A  red  pepper  flower, 
Ling,  Ihig,  ling. 
Mamma  will  listen. 
And  baby  will  sing. 

Old  Mother  Wind, 
Come  this  way. 
And  make  our  baby 
Cool  to-day. 

This  book  will  interest  everybody  from  the  most  ignorant  to  the 
most  learned,  for  it  has  within  it  the  human  essence  that  proves  the 
real  unity  of  mankind.  —  Journal  of  American  Folklore. 

265.  Speeches  for  special  occasions.  Addresses  in  com- 
raemoratiou  of  great  men  or  events,  at  the  dedication  of 
buildings,  on  the  presentation  of  gifts,  and  in  response 
to  toasts,  are  of  this  class.  These  speeches  are  more  often 
demanded  in  the  experience  of  the  average  person  than 
are  lectures,  pleas,  and  sermons.  Addresses  of  commem- 
oration or  dedication  are  often  long  and  elaborate,  wliile" 
presentation  and  banquet  speeches  are  generally  short  and 
informal  ;  but,  in  all,  the  thing  especially  to  be  sought  after 
is  appropriateness  to  the  occasion.  They  should  be  usually 
brief,  direct,  interesting,  and  witty  or  serious  as  the  occa- 
sion demands.  Of  the  many  possible  varieties  of  such 
speeches,  the  following  examples  are  given  as  types. 

Ex.  1.  It  is  fortunate  for  you,  my  friends,  as  well  as  for  myself, 
that  the  subject  you  have  given  me  needs  not  the  adventitious  aids 
of  rhetoric,  the  embellishments  of  fancy,  or  the  persuasive  power  of 
eloquence,  to  commend  it  to  your  hearts.  The  story  of  that  grand 
life,  which  has  so  recently  come  to  an  end,  is  best  told  in  the  simple 


386  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

and  severe  language  of  truth,  and  the  character  of  him  who  made 
that  life  so  noble  and  virtuous,  will  be  best  delineated  by  the  plain 
recital  that  recalls  the  virtue  which  gave  it  lustre,  and  tells  of  the 
genius  that  has  crowned  it  with  undying  glory.  To  do  this  properly 
is  a  task  of  no  ordinary  magnitude,  .  .  .  and  the  picture  then  pre- 
sented to  you,  though  drawn  from  life  itself,  by  the  hand  of  truth, 
will  seem  almost  too  bright  to  belong  to  humanity. 

But  to  those  —  should  there  be  such  —  who  regard  the  portrait 
as  too  highly  colored,  let  the  record  of  a  life  full  to  overflowing  with 
heroic  deeds,  and  of  a  character  crowned  with  every  virtue,  speak 
for  itself.  By  thus  holding  up  to  your  view  the  record  of  that 
heroic  and  unblemished  life  my  task  will  be  best  discharged,  while 
the  lesson  such  a  life  should  teach  will  sink  deeper  into  our  hearts 
and  those  of  our  children  than  any  words  of  eulogy,  however 
deserved,  or  any  power  of  language,  however  eloquent,  could 
inculcate. 

Extract  from  Wade   Hampton's  "Speech  on  the  Life  and 
Character  of  Robert  E.  Lee." 

Ex.  2.  Gentlemen:  —  I  rise  to  propose  a  toast  to  the  illustrious 
guest  whom  we  are  assembled  to  honor.  It  is  cause  for  felicita- 
tion to  have  this  opportunity  to  receive  him  at  our  festive  board. 
For  the  last  ten  years  the  Good  Citizens  Club  of  this  city  has 
watched  with  interest  and  admiration  his  political  career,  which  has 
been  marked  by  statesmanlike  sagacity  and  manly  integrity.  For 
his  numerous  public  services  we  owe  him  much,  and  we  offer  him 
our  heartfelt  gratitude.  We  say  to  him  to-night,  with  feelings  of 
profound  respect  and  warm  affection,  that  we  are  rejoiced  at  his 
presence  here  among  his  Denver  friends.  I  give  you  the  name 
of . 

EXERCISE 

I 

Write  a  descriptive  essay  of  not  less  than  eight  hun- 
dred words  on  one  of  the  following  subjects  : 


IMPORTANT  FORMS   OF  FROSE  387 

1.  The  Passion  Play  of  Oberainmergau. 

2.  The  Court  Jester. 

3.  Popular  Superstitions. 

4.  The  Passing  of  the  Stage-Coach. 

II 
Write  a  critical  essay  uii  one  of  the  following  subjects : 

1.  The  Advantages  of  Interscholastic  Athh'tics, 

2.  Tennyson's  Ideal  Woman. 

3.  The  Value  of  Peary's  Explorations  in  the  North. 

Ill 
Outline   the    arguments    of   an    imaginary  arson    case, 
and  write  the  concluding  appeal  of  the   lawyer  for  the 
defendant. 

IV 
Write  an  oration  of  not  less  than  five  hundred  words 
on  one  of  the  following  political  questions: 

1.  Dangers  that  menace  our  Republic. 

2.  The  Duty  of  the  Voter. 

3.  The  Stability  of  American  Institutions. 


Write  reviews  of  not  more  than  two  hundred  words  on 
the  following  l)ooks,  being  careful  to  make  the  comments 
your  own : 

1.  Thackeray's  "Pendennis." 

2.  Kingsley's  "Water  Babies." 

3.  Van  Dyke's  "  The  Lost  Word." 

4.  Long's  "Ways  of  Wood  Folk." 

5.  ^rark  Twain's  "  Innocents  Abroad." 
3,  Kipling's  "  Barrack- Room  Ballads." 


388  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

7.  Stevenson's  "  Master  of  Ballantrae." 

8.  Howell's  "  The  Rise  of  Silas  Lapham." 

9.  Eugene  Field's  "  A  Little  Book  of  Profitable  Tales." 
10.  Bulwer-Lytton's  "  The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii." 

VI 

Write  speeches  of  about  four  hundred  words  on  each 
of  the  following  subjects: 

1.  An  Arbor  Day  Address. 

2.  The  Planting  of  a  Class  Ivy. 

3.  The  Presentation  of  a  Gift  to  the  School. 

4.  A  Commemoration  Address  on  Washington's  Birthday. 

5.  An  Address  on  Founder's  Day.    . 

VII 

Write  fifty  to  one  hundred  words  in  response  to  the 
following  toasts : 

1.  Our  School. 

2.  The  Ideal  Student. 

3.  Successful  Failures. 

4.  The  Ladies. 

5.  School  Days  a  Preparation  for  Life. 

SUMMARY 

266.  The  most  important  forms  of  prose  are  description, 
narration,  and  exposition. 

Description  is,  in  a  sense,  a  pen  picture  of  a  real  or 
imaginary  object,  scene,  or  person.  In  every  instance 
attention  must  be  given  to  the  point  of  view,  the  selection 
of  the  essential  characteristics,  the  logical  arrangement  of 
details,  and  the  careful  choice  of  words. 


IMPORTANT  FORMS    OF  PROSE  389 

A  character  sketch  differs  from  a  caricature  in  being  a 
fair  and  impartial  presentation  of  the  underlying  motives 
which  seem  to  control  a  life.  A  caricature  is  the  inten- 
tional ejcaggeration  of  one  or  more  qualities  of  character. 

The  most  important  kinds  of  narration  are  histories, 
biographies,  travels,  short  stories,  and  novels.  The  shorter 
forms  are  news  items,  anecdotes,  diaries,  and  letters. 

A  history  is  a  record  of  past  events,  or,  more  accurately, 
a  connected  story  of  the  progress  of  a  nation's  civiliza- 
tion. History  differs  from  tradition  in  dealing  only  with 
well-authenticated  facts,  and  not  with  rumors,  beliefs, 
or  impressions  of  individuals  or  peoples.  The  historical 
spirit  implies  a  strong  grasp  of  epoch-making  events  and 
principles,  a  logical  view  of  causes  and  results,  a  fine  sense 
of  proportion,  and  a  wise  power  of  selection. 

A  biography  is  the  life  of  one  man  or  woman  written 
by  another  man  or  woman.  The  essentials  of  a  good 
biography  are  accuracy,  fairness,  and  proportion.  An 
autobiography  is  the  life  of  a  person  written  by  himself. 
It  is  likely  to  be  especially  interesting  because  of  its 
detailed  and  personal  character.  But  it  is,  of  course, 
sometimes  unreliable  because  of  its  lack  of  perspective. 

A  book  of  travels  is  a  combination  of  description, 
narration,  and  exposition,  in  which  narration  prevails  to  a 
large  extent.  The  chief  interest  lies  either  in  the  novelty 
of  the  matter  or  in  the  individuality  of  the  writer's  style. 

The  short  story  is  a  brief  tale,  which  usually  has  a 
strong  point,  a  well-constructed  plot,  life-like  characters, 
and  vigorous  dialogue.  The  theme  and  its  treatment  may 
range  from  humorous  to  pathetic  or  tragic.  A  judicious 
use  of  dialect  may  be  very  effective. 


390  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

News  items  should  be  of  interest  and  importance. 
They  should  treat  facts  in  a  fair  and  impersonal  man- 
ner and  be  written  in  a  clear,  direct,  and  vivid  style. 
An  anecdote  should  have  one  telling  point,  which  is 
brought  out  strongly  and  concisely.  A  diary  is  a  brief 
and  intimate  daily  record  of  personal  observations,  expe- 
riences, and  impressions. 

Exposition  is  the  form  of  prose  which  unfolds,  defines, 
explains,  or  interprets  facts  and  conceptions.  It  presents 
the  idea  of  a  class^  or  sums  up  the  legitimate  conclusions 
to  be  drawn  from  many  examples  of  a  truth. 

The  most  important  forms  of  exposition  are  essays 
and  orations.  Other  miscellaneous  forms  are  newspaper 
editorials,  book  reviews,  and  speeches  for  special  occa- 
sions. 

Essays  are  formal  or  informal.  The  informal  essay  is 
usually  more  or  less  descriptive  in  form.  The  formal 
essay  is  scientific  or  critical.  The  purpose  of  the  critical 
essay  is  not  primarily  to  find  fault,  but  rather  to  give 
a  fair  view  of  merits  and  defects.  A  critic  should 
have  a  definite  standard  of  criticism  based  on  his  own 
thorough  investigation,  keenness  in  recognizing  new 
truths,  and  judgment  unbiased  by  personal  prejudice. 

An  oration  is  an  elaborate  public  discourse  intended 
to  convince  the  intellect,  to  arouse  the  emotions,  or  to 
move  the  will.  It  consists  largely  of  exposition,  which 
should  be  clear,  strong,  rapid,  and  convincing.  The  brief 
appeal  is  based  directly  on  the  exposition  and  leads 
rapidly  to  a  strong  climax. 

The  most  important  bases  of  appeal  are  personal 
interest,  patriotism,  domestic  or  religious  feeling,  and  a 


IMPORTANT  FORMS    OF  PROSE  891 

desire  for  truth.  These  give  rise  to  the  plea,  the  politi- 
cal speech,  the  sermon,  and  the  lecture. 

The  plea  has  four  more  or  less  distinct  parts  :  an 
informal  opening,  a  criticism  of  the  evidence  of  the 
other  side,  a  clear  and  forceful  argument  based  on  the 
evidence  of  the  witnesses,  and  a  conclusion.  Clearness 
and  earnestness  are  important  requisites  of  the  lawyer's 
style.     Wit,  sarcasm,  and  pathos  are  also  effective. 

The  political  speech  varies  from  the  informal,  collo- 
quial words  of  the  stump  speaker  to  the  carefully  pol- 
ished periods  of  the  statesman.  Its  appeal  is  to  expediency, 
integrity,  patriotism,  or  love  of  justice. 

A  sermon  is  a  discoui'se  based  on  a  text  chosen  from 
Scripture,  and  appealing  to  conscience  and  religious  feel- 
ing. It  should  be  brief,  logical,  practical,  and  tinged  with 
quiet  reverence  and  deep  feeling. 

The  lecture  may  vary  greatly  in  theme  and  treatment, 
but  as  a  rule  it  should  be  logical  and  scholarly.  Since  it 
is  intended  for  delivery  rather  than  for  reading,  it  may  be 
somewhat  more  familiar  in  style  than  the  essay. 

Editorials  comment  upon  the  meaning  of  the  news  in 
any  of  the  departments  of  thought  —  politics,  education, 
sociology,  dramatic  and  musical  criticism,  philanthropy, 
and  sometimes  theology.  The  object  of  book  reviews  is 
to  give  concisely  the  general  scope  and  value  of  recently 
published  books.  Speeches  for  special  occasions  should 
aim  especially  at  appropriateness. 

A  debate  furnishes  the  arguments  on  both  sides  of  a 
question.  The  speakei-s  endeavor  to  destroy  the  position 
of  their  opponents,  as  well  as  to  maintain  their  own. 
Subjects  that  have  practically  but  one  side,  that  are  liable 


392  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

to  arouse  bitterness  of  feeling  without  securing  any  valu- 
able end,  or  that  are  not  definitely  limited,  are  unsuited 
for  argumentation. 

There  are  two  methods  of  reasoning  :  the  deductive  and 
the  inductive.  Each  of  these  is  based  on  a  syllogism, 
usually  implied  rather  than  stated.  A  syllogism  consists 
of  a  major  premise,  a  minor  premise,  and  a  conclusion.  In 
the  case  of  deductive  reasoning,  the  major  premise  is  the 
statement  of  a  general  proposition,  and  in  the  case  of 
inductive  reasoning  it  is  the  statement  of  individual  facts 
actually  observed.  If  the  general  proposition  is  wrong, 
the  conclusion  must  be  false;  if  the  facts  observed  are 
too  few  to  form  a  safe  basis  of  judgment,  the  conclu- 
sion is  not  proved.  Inductive  reasoning  is  the  method 
most  commonly  employed  by  modern  scientists. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

CRITICAL   STUDY  OF  THE   NOVEL   AND   THE   DRAMA 
AS  LITERARY  FORMS 

A  novel  is  an  intellectual  artistic  luxury.  —  F.  IMarion  Crawford. 
A  drama  is  imitated  action.  —  Aristotle. 

267.  Importance  of  the  novel  and  the  drama  as  literary  forms. 
The  novel  and  the  drama  probably  move  the  majority  of 
readers  more  deeply  than  any  other  literary  forms.  Of 
the  many  reasons  for  this,  two  are  obvious:  the  interest 
that  attaches  itself  to  a  story  well  told  or  acted,  and  the 
strong  appeal  to  emotions  common  to  all  human  hearts. 
The  novel  gives  a  personal  impression  of  life  ;  the  drama, 
a  personal  demonstration  of  life. 

The  critical  study  of  these  two  forms  will  aid  the 
student  to  an  intelligent  appreciation  of  these  types  of 
composition,  and  will  furnish  interesting  models  of  descrip- 
tion, narration,  and  exposition. 

I.     THE   NOVEL 

268.  Literary  forms  leading  to  the  English  novel.  The  novel 
did  not  spring  into  being  full-grown.  It  is  the  expression 
of  a  somewhat  complex  civilization,  and  has  been  a  gradual 
growth.  Certain  forms  of  narration  have  led  naturally  to 
the  modern  novel. 

393 


394  COMPOSITION  AND  BHETORIC 

1.  Animal  myths  or  fables.  These  arose' long  ago  from 
the  belief  that  man  had  power  to  change  his  form  and 
nature  into  animal  shape.  Familiar  examples  of  this  kind 
of  writing  are  found  in  Buddha's  ''  Paths  of  Virtue  "  and 
the  fables  of  ^sop,  Phsedrus,  La  Fontaine,  and  Lessing. 

2.  Folk-tales^  sagas,  or  legends.  These  stories  are 
repeated  with  similarity  of  general  idea,  but  variety  of 
details,  in  all  nations  of  common  descent.  The  most 
familiar  types  are  these  :  "  Cupid  and  Psyche,"  "  Samson," 
"  Lear,"  "  Hercules,"  "  Beauty  and  the  Beast,"  "  Aladdin," 
and  "  King  Arthur  and  his  Round  Table."  The  similari- 
ties and  the  differences  furnish  the  basis  of  valuable 
historical,  philological,  and  ethical  study. 

3.  Romances  and  allegories.  These  later  forms  of 
narration  are  more  nearly  related  to  the  novel  than  the 
earlier  ones  just  mentioned.  A  romance  is  a  story  of  mar- 
velous and  improbable  incidents,  as  Sidney's  '•'  Arcadia  " 
and  Lodge's  "Rosalind."  It  is  distinguished  from  the 
romantic  novel,  to  be  described  later,  by  its  lack  of  plot,  and 
by  its  extreme  improbability.  An  allegory  is  a  prolonged 
metaphor,  or  it  is  a  story  beneath  which  is  an  implied  story 
of  deeper  meaning.  Familiar  examples  of  allegories  are 
Bunyan's  "The  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  Swift's  "Gulliver's 
Travels,"  and  Spenser's  "  The  Faerie  Queene." 

4.  Ussays  of  life  and  manners.  The  essays  of  Addison  and 
Steele  in  the  Spectator  furnish  excellent  character  studies. 

269.  Definition  of  a  novel.  A  novel  is  a  fictitious  story 
of  some  complexity  of  plot,  purporting  to  be  modeled 
after  real  life,  and  portraying  the  working  of  some  great 
passion,  often  that  of  love. 


THE  NOVEL  AND  DRAMA  AS  LITERARY  FORMS     395 

270.  Classes  of  novels.  Many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  classify  novels,  but  thus  far  none  of  them  has  been 
absolutely  satisfactory.  In  many  cases  the  divisions  are 
not  mutually  exclusive,  and  in  most  cases  any  novel 
chosen  to  illustrate  the  type  has  so  many  features  illus- 
trative of  some  other  type  that  the  result  is  very  con- 
fusing. A  division  often  made  is  into  realistic  and 
idealistic  novels.  One  novelist  says  realism,  or  con- 
formity to  actual  life  in  its  minutest  details,  is  the  only 
thing  to  be  desired.  "Truth  at  all  costs."  Another 
says  idealism,  or  the  transformation  of  actual  life  by 
the  spirit  of  the  ideal,  is  truth  in  its  highest  sense, 
and  the  only  thing  that  is  artistic  or  inspiring.  "The 
actual  is  sen-did  and  belittling.  The  ideal  is  the  only 
real."  Between  these  two  schools  the  individual  reader 
and  thinker  must  judge  for  himself.  Of  the  school  of 
realism,  perhaps  Heniy  James,  William  Dean  Howells, 
and  George  Meredith  are  the  best  modern  examples. 
Of  the  idealistic  school,  Hawthorne,  George  Eliot,  and 
Stevenson  are  excellent  types. 

The  following  terms  are  also  often  found  in  book 
reviews:  romantic  novels,  historical  novels,  ethical  novels, 
artistic  novels.  These  terms  cannot  be  very  rigidly  defined, 
but  in  general  their  meaning  is  this.  The  romantic  novel 
is  the  novel  of  imagination,  displayed  in  adventure,  as  in 
Stevenson's  "  Treasure  Island " ;  or  in  adventure  and 
love-making,  as  in  Scott's  "  Ivanhoe  "  ;  or  in  the  realm  of 
the  allegorical,  as  in  George  Macdonald's  "At  the  Back  of 
the  North  Wind." 

The  historical  novel  is  the  novel  based  on  historical 
facts  and  purporting  to  be  true  to  the  spirit  of  history. 


396  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Sometimes  the  so-called  historical  novel  has  been  but 
a  "sugar-coated  pill,"  concealing  a  tiresome  and  often 
distorted  bit  of  history.  Of  late  we  have  had  a  somewhat 
overpowering  number  of  novels  of  this  type,  most  of  them 
dealing  with  American  history,  frequently  of  the  colonial 
period.  Without  doubt  this  form  of  novel  may  be  made 
fascinating,  but  it  is  still  an  open  question  whether  it  is  a 
high  form  of  art,  and  whether  history  and  fiction  should 
not  be  separated.  Of  the  more  valuable  historical  novels 
two  or  three  may  be  mentioned :  Thackeray's  "  Henry 
Esmond,"  Shorthouse's  "  John  Inglesant,"  and  Kingsley's 
"  Westward  Ho !  " 

The  ethical  novel  is  the  novel  whose  distinct  moral 
purpose  is  rather  obvious.  Its  very  nature  at  once  raises 
the  question  as  to  whether  the  novelist's  purpose  should  be 
''  art  for  art's  sake,"  or  ^'  art  for  religion's  sake."  Helen 
Hunt  Jackson's  "  Ramona,"  Dickens'  "  Oliver  Twist," 
Margaret  Deland's  "  John  Ward,  Preacher,"  although  of 
widely  diifering  types,  are  all  illustrations  of  the  ethical 
novel. 

The  novel  based  on  the  purely  artistic  motive  is  the 
highest  form  of  the  novel.  It  is  as  nearly  perfect  in 
theme,  plot,  description,  and  characters  as  is  possible 
with  human  limitations.  By  many  people  Thackeray's 
"  Henry  Esmond,"  Hawthorne's  "  Scarlet  Letter,"  and 
George  Eliot's  "  Silas  Marner "  are  classed  as  artistic 
novels.  Certainly  they  are  novels  which  deserve  high 
praise. 

271.  The  novelist's  point  of  view.  The  writer  may  assume 
to  be  a  disinterested  observer,  as  in  Thackeray's  "  Henry 


THE   yOVEL   AXn    DhWMA    AS   LITERARY  FORMS      397 

Esmond";  to  be  a  friend,  as  in  A.  S.  Hardy's  ^'I^ut  Yet 
a  Woman  " ;  to  be  a  critic,  as  in  George  Meredith's  "  The 
Egoist";  or  to  write  in  the  person  of  the  hero  himself, 
as  Richard  Blackmore  does  in  '*  Lorna  Doone."  The  sul)- 
jective  point  of  view,  last  mentioned,  has  been  popular 
of  late,  but  it  is  open  to  many  dangers  from  the  artistic 
side. 

272.  The  plot  of  a  novel.  The  plot  of  a  novel  is  the 
scheme,  more  or  less  complex  in  character,  which  forms 
the  framework  of  the  novel.  Fielding  was  the  first  nov- 
elist to  give  us  a  well  developed  plot.  Since  Ids  day  the 
plot  has  assumed  many  forms.  The  essentials  of  a  good 
plot  are  these :  originality,  interest,  a  fair  degree  of  prob- 
ability, a  certain  element  of  mystery,  and  a  dramatic  and 
satisfactory  climax. 

273.  The  characters  of  a  novel.  In  most  modern  novels 
the  characters  are  of  even  more  importance  than  the  plot. 
They  are  divided  into  principal  and  minor  characters. 
The  principal  charactei-s  are  often  the  hero,  the  heroine, 
and  the  villain.  Many  novels  dispense  with  either  the 
Jiero  or  the  heroine,  and  oft^n  the  hero  and  the  villain  are 
combined  in  one  person.  In  this  case  the  plot  depends 
largely  upon  the  moral  struggle  between  the  forces  of 
good  and  evil  within  the  soul  of  the  hero.  The  minor 
characters  are  those  that  serve  to  develop,  or  at  least 
to  explain,  the  nature  and  action  of  the  principal  char- 
acters. They  are  usually  of  two  classes :  the  people  who 
by  their  wickedness  or  stupidity  involve  the  principal 
characters  in  disgrace  or  perplexity,  and  the  mirth-making 
characters.     In  the  novels  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 


398  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

so-called  minor  characters  were  almost  entirely  of  the 
mirth-making  type,  but  were  often  so  interesting  as  to 
detract  from  the  popularity  of  the  central  figures.  In  the 
modern  novel  they  are  usually  properly  subordinated. 

274.  Use  of  description  and  conversation.  The  amount  of 
description  which  is  appropriate  in  a  novel  depends 
greatly  upon  the  theme  and  its  treatment.  The  modern 
tendency  seems  to  be  to  center  the  interest  in  the  action. 
Such  writers  as  William  Black,  F.  Marion  Crawford, 
and  James  Lane  Allen  often  use  a  large  amount  of 
description. 

Conversation  is  another  extremely  important  element 
in  the  novel ;  its  most  obvious  use,  perhaps,  being  the 
introduction  of  a  pleasing  variety  and  vivacity.  But, 
more  subtly,  good  conversation  serves  the  vital  purposes 
of  aiding  in  unfolding  the  plot,  and  of  revealing  the 
motives  and  the  inner  character  of  the  several  personages 
involved  in  the  story  with  a  vividness  and  attractive- 
ness that  cannot  be  attained  by  mere  description  or 
narration. 

275.  Analysis  of  "  Silas  Mamer  "  as  a  typical  novel.  The 
facts  about  the  novel  which  have  been  already  stated 
may  be  more  clearly  illustrated  by  a  brief  analysis 
of  a  typical  novel.  "  Silas  Marner "  has  been  selected 
for  this  purpose  because  its  plot-construction,  its  char- 
acter-development, its  description,  and  its  dialogue  make 
it  characteristic  of  the  best  English  novels.  The  stu- 
dent should  bear  constantly  in  mind  that  the  analysis 
is  designed  to  be  suggestive  and  stimulating  for  future 
work.     No  one  brief  analysis  of  any  book  could  give  for 


THE  NOVEL  AND  DRAMA  AS  LITERARY  FORMS     399 

every   student   and    school  the  only  or  the  best  possible 
criticism. 

Silas  Marner 

A.  Theme.     The  transforming  power  of  human  love 

and  sympathy.     "And  a  little   child  shall  lead 
them." 

B.  Setting.     Rural  England  at  the  beginning  of  the 

nineteenth  century. 

C.  Outline  of  the  plot. 

1.  Marner's  accusation  and  trial  at  Lantern  Yard. 

1.  Circumstances  connected  with  the  trial. 

2.  Results. 

(1)  Desertion  by  his  friend  and  his  sweetheart. 

(2)  Loss  of  faith  in  God  and  man. 

2.  Hoarding  of  his  gold  at  Raveloe. 

1.  Causes. 

2.  Results. 

3.  Discovery  of  Eppie. 

1.  Circumstances  connected  with  the  child's  appearance. 

2.  Marner's  determination  to  keep  the  child. 

4.  The  education  of  Eppie. 

1.  Physical. 

2.  Moral. 

3.  Religious. 

5.  New  tests  of  Marner's  character. 

1 .  Failure  to  clear  up  the  old  mystery  by  a  visit  to  Lantern 

Yard. 

2.  Godfrey  Cass'  offer  to  adopt  Eppie. 

3.  Eppie's  marriage  to  Aaron. 


400  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

D.    Individual  characters. 

1.  Principal. 

1.  Silas  Marner. 

2.  Eppie. 

3.  Godfrey  Cass. 

2.  Minor. 

1.  Dolly  Winthrop.  4.  Squire  Cass. 

2.  Nancy  Lammeter.  5.  William  Dane. 

3.  Dunstan  Cass.  6.  Molly  Farrell. 

3.  Character  grouping. 

1.  Silas  and  Eppie. 

2.  Silas,  Eppie,  Dolly,  and  Aaron. 

3.  Silas,  Eppie,  Godfrey,  and  Nancy. 

4.  Squire  Cass,  Godfrey,  and  Dunstan. 

5.  Silas,  William  Dane,  and  Sarah. 

4.  Character  contrast. 

1.  Silas  and  Eppie. 

2.  Nancy  and  Molly. 

3.  Nancy  and  Priscilla. 
■  4.  Silas  and  William. 

5.  Silas  and   Godfrey :    one   growing  upward,  the  other 
downward. 

5.  Description. 

1.  Places. 

(1)  Lantern  Yard. 

(2)  Raveloe. 

(3)  The  Stone-pit. 

2.  People. 

(1)  Silas. 

(2)  Nancy. 

(3)  Godfrey. 


THE  NOVEL  AND  DRAMA  AS  LITERARY  FORMS     401 

E.  Dialogue  and  conversation. 

1.  Villagers  at  the  Rainbow.     Chapter  VI. 

2.  Squire  Cass  and  his  two  sons.     Chapter  IX. 

3.  Dolly  and  Silas.     Chapters  XT  and  XVI. 

4.  Guests  at  the  Red  House.     Chapter  XI. 

5.  Two  fathers.     Chapter  XIX. 

F.  Style.^ 

EXERCISE 


Write  out  the  plot  of  "  Silas  Marner"  in  one  hundred  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  words,  showing  a  consistent  chain 
of  essential  incidents. 

TI 

Write  about  one  hundred  words  on  the  subject  of 
Eppie's  influence  on  Silas. 

Ill 

Trace  the  moral  downfall  of  Godfrey  Cass.  Use  special 
care  in  the  development  of  each  paragraph,  and  in  the 
relation  of  the  separate  paragraphs  to  one  another. 

IV 

Write  a  careful  character  sketch  of  one  of  the  follow- 
ing charactei-s,  using  the  methods  of  delineation  em- 
ployed by  George  Eliot  —  description,  narration  of  deeds, 
or  dialogue : 

1.  Dolly  Winthrop. 

2.  Nancy  Laninieter. 

3.  Dunstan  Cass. 


402  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


Write  the  following  imaginary  dialogues,  making  them 
consistent  with  George  Eliot's  conception  of  these  people : 

1.  Last  dialogue  between  Silas  Marner  and  William  Dane. 

2.  Dialogue  in  which,  just  before  the  marriage,  Godfrey  tells 
Nancy  who  Eppie  really  is. 

3.  Conversation  at  the  Rainbow  when  it  becomes  known  that 
Silas  has  been  wronged  at  Lantern  Yard. 

VI 

Outline  the  arguments  on  hoth  sides  of  a  debate,  on 
the  question,  "  Resolved  that  Godfrey  Cass  was  the 
Victim  of  Circumstances." 

VII 

Write  an  oration  on  the  subject,  "  The  Great  Crises  of 
Life  "  (based  on  the  experiences  of  Silas  Marner). 

vin 

Write  a  critical  essay  on  the  subject,  "Special  Merits 
of  George  Eliot's  Literary  Style." 

II.     THE   DEAMA 

276.  Origin  of  the  English  drama.  The  English  drama 
originated  in  the  conscientious  attempts  of  religious 
teachers  to  reach  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  people 
through  the  eye  as  well  as  through  the  ear.  For  some 
time  only  Bible  stories  were  presented  by  the  priests  and 
in  the  churches.  Later  the  subject  and  method  of  treat- 
ment changed,  and  wild  and  unseemly  revels  took  the 
place  of  reverent  worship. 


THE  NOVEL  AND  DRAMA  AS  LITERARY  FORMS     403 

277.    Steps  leading  to  the  English  drama. 

1.  Passion  plays  and  saint  plays.  In  Europe,  at  the 
close  of  the  second  century,  paraphrases  of  Bible  stories 
began  to  be  given  in  the  churches.  By  the  fifth  century, 
tableaux,  dialogues,  and  crude  scenery  had  been  added. 
By  the  twelfth  century,  these  plays,  with  Daniel,  Lazarus, 
and  St.  Nicholas  as  heroes,  had  become  popular  in 
England. 

2.  Miracle  plays.  By  the  fourteenth  century,  cycles  of 
miracle  plays  were  presented  in  the  public  squares  of  prin- 
cipal towns.  The  cycle  began  with  the  story  of  Cain  and 
Abel,  and  sometimes  extended  through  the  life  of  Christ, 
comprising  from  twenty-five  to  forty-two  plays  in  all. 
The  most  important  of  these  cycles  were  the  Towneley, 
the  York,  the  Chester,  and  the  Coventry. 

3.  Moralities.  So  lively  had  the  plays  now  become 
that  they  were  a  source  of  scandal  in  the  Church,  and  an 
attempt  at  reform  was  the  immediate  cause  of  the  appear- 
ance of  the  Moralities,  the  characters  in  which  are  abstract 
virtues  and  vices.  These  plays  were,  as  a  rule,  of  little 
permanent  value. 

4.  Interludes.  These  brief  plays,  which,  as  their 
name  indicates,  were  given  between  the  acts  of  more 
elaborate  plays,  originated  with  John  Hey  wood.  They 
were  short,  comic,  and  realistic.  The  most  familiar  exam- 
ple of  this  kind  of  play  is  "The  Four  Fs."  A  "pote- 
cary"  wins  a  wager  over  his  companions  —  a  pardoner, 
a  palmer,  and  a  peddler — by  telling  the  biggest  lie; 
namely,  that  he  never  saw  a  woman  angry. 

5.  First  English  comedy  and  tragedy.  The  first  Eng- 
lish comedy,  "  Ralph  Roister  Doister,"  by  Nicholas  Udall, 


404  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

appeared  in  1551.  The  first  English  tragedy  was 
"  Gorboduc,  or  Ferrex  and  Porrex,"  by  Norton  and 
Sackville.  These  plays  were  influential  in  developing 
the  form  of  drama  adopted  by  Shakespeare. 

278.  Nature  of  comedy.  Comedy  (Gk.  /cw/io?,  a  jovial 
festival  with  music)  is  "a  dramatic  composition  based 
upon  the  foibles  of  individuals,  the  manners  of  society,  or 
the  ludicrous  events  or  accidents  of  life."  It  may  range 
from  the  broadest  farce  to  the  subtlest  humor  or  satire. 
The  best  comedy  is  based  on  unnecessary  incongruities  of 
character  and  action,  rather  than  upon  accidents  of  situa- 
tion or  of  speech.  It  arises,  as  a  rule,  from  violations  of 
common  sense  and  good  taste,  rather  than  of  morality. 
A  comedy  should  end  happily. 

279.  Nature  of  tragedy.  Tragedy  (Gk.  rpdyo^,  a  goat, 
because  a  goat  was  sacrificed  when  the  earliest  plays  were 
presented)  is  ''  a  dramatic  poem  composed  in  elevated  style, 
representing  a  signal  action  performed  by  some  person 
or  persons,  and  having  a  fatal  issue."  In  this  form  of 
drama  there  must  be  a  tremendous  struggle  either  between 
human  will  and  fate,  as  in  the  old  Greek  tragedies,  or 
between  the  human  will  and  a  contending  force  within 
man,  as  is  sometimes  seen  in  modern  drama.  The  theme 
is  usually  sin  and  its  punishment.  A  tragedy  cannot 
end  happily,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  but  it 
should  end  so  as  to  satisfy  the  reader's  sense  of  justice, 
and  leave  him  with  an  underlying  faith  in  the  sanity 
of  life.  One  source  of  the  lasting  popularity  of  Shakes- 
peare's plays  lies  in  the  way  in  which  they  fulfill  this 
last  requirement. 


THE  NOVEL  AND  DRAMA  AS  LITERARY  FORMS     405 

280.  Climax  and  catastrophe.  The  climax  of  a  play  is 
the  point  of  greatest  uncertainty  —  the  point  at  which 
the  complicating  forces  have  done  their  utmost,  and  the 
resolving  forces  have  hardly  begun  to  act.  Theoretically 
it  occurs  somewhere  in  the  third  act,  but  actually  it  is 
sometimes  found  nearer  the  end  of  the  play. 

The  catastrophe,  or  complete  unraveling  of  the  plot,  is 
delayed  as  late  as  possible  in  the  fifth  act,  because  the 
interest  is  liable  to  flag  after  this,  and  an  anticlimax 
result. 

281.  The  unities.  The  ancient  Greeks  preserved  most 
scrupulously  the  three  unities,  of  time,  place,  and  action. 
The  events  of  the  play  had  to  occur  within  twenty-four 
hours,  at  one  place,  and  there  must  be  consistency  of 
action.  The  obvious  disadvantage  of  narrowing  the 
scope  of  dramatic  work  to  conform  to  the  unities  of  time 
and  place  led  Shakespeare  and  his  successors  to  exercise 
their  own  judgment  about  following  them.  The  unity 
of  action  should  always  be  carefully  observed. 

282.  Analysis  of  ♦* Macbeth"  as  a  typical  tragedy.  The  fol- 
lowing rather  detailed  analysis  may  serve  to  suggest  to 
the  student  a  method  to  be  followed  in  similar  work  of 
his  own. 

Macbeth 

A.  Theme.    The  demoralizing  effect  of  an  overmaster- 

ing ambition. 

B.  Setting.     Ideal  conception  of  Scotland  in  the  reign 

of  Duncan. 


406  COMPOSITION  AND  EHETOEIC 

C.    Outline  of  the  plot. 

Act  I.     Temptation. 

Scene  I.        Conference  of  the  witches. 

Scene  II.      Downfall  of  the  Thane  of  Cawdor. 

Scene  III.     Prophecy  of  the  Weird  Sisters. 

Scene  IV.     First  step  in  the  fulfillment  of  the  prophecy. 

Scene  V.      Lady  Macbeth's  resolve. 

Scene  VI.     Lady     Macbeth's    gracious     reception     of 

Duncan. 
Scene  VII.  Lady    Macbeth's     encouragement    of     her 

husband. 

Act  II.     Murder  of  Duncan. 

Scene  I.        Macbeth's  resolve. 
Scene  II.      Account  of  the  murder. 
Scene  III.     Discovery  of  the  murder.     Flight  of  Mal- 
colm and  Donalbain. 
Scene  IV.     Suspicions  of  the  public. 

Act  III.     Murder  of  Banquo. 

Scene  I.  Macbeth's  arrangements  with  the  murderers. 

Scene  II.  Restless  fears  of  Macbeth. 

Scene  III.  Murder  of  Banquo.     Escape  of  Fleance. 

Scene  IV.  Return  of  Banquo's  ghost  to  banquet. 

Scene  V.  Conspiracy  of  the  witches. 

Scene  VI.  N^ews  from  Macduff. 

Act  IV.     Murder  of  Lady  Macduff  and  her  son. 

Scene  I .        Doom  of  Macbeth  pronounced  by  the  witches . 
Scene  II.      Murder  of  Lady  Macduff  and  her  little  son. 
Scene  III.    Effect    on   Macduff    of    the    news    of    the 
murders. 

Act  V.     Retribution. 

Scene  I.        Sleep-walking  of  Lady  Macbeth. 
Scene  II.      Determination  of  Macbeth's  enemies. 


THE  NOVEL  AND  DRAMA  AS  LITERARY  FORMS     407 

Scene  III.     Terror  of  Macbeth's  party. 
Scene  IV.     Appearance  of  Birnam  Wood. 
Scene  V.       News  of  Lady  Macbeth's  death. 
I^cene  VI.     Plans  of  the  enemy. 
Scene  VII.  Killing  of  Macbeth  by  Macduif. 

B.    Special  features  of  the  plot. 

1.  Complicating  forces. 

1.  Selfish  ambition,  cowardly  irresolution  of  Macbeth. 

2.  Distorted    love    and    indomitable    will    of    Lady 

Macbeth. 

3.  Supernatural  agency  of  the  Weird  Sisters. 

4.  Integrity  and  shrewdness  of  Banquo. 

2.  Resolving  forces. 

1.  Malcolm  and  Donalbain. 

2.  Loyalty  of  his  subjects  to  King  Duncan. 

3.  Macduff's  desire  for  revenge. 

3.  Climax.     Escape  of  Fleance :  Act  III,  Scene 

JIT,  line  18. 

4.  Catastrophe.     Begins  with  the  fulfillment  of 

the  prediction  as  to  Birnam  Wood,  Act  V, 
Scene  IV,  and  ends  with  the  fulfillment 
of  the  prophecy  as  to  Macbeth's  destroyer. 
Act  V,  Scene  VIII. 

U.    Characters. 

1.  Macbeth. 

1.  Ruling   motive.      Selfish    ambition   for    personal 

power. 

2.  Other  marked   traits.      Physical   bravery,    moral 

cowardice,  irresolution,  and  jealousy. 

3.  Steps  in  character  degeneration. 


408  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

2.  Lady  Macbeth. 

1.  Ruling  motive.     Desire  to  please  her  husband. 

2.  Other  marked  characteristics.     Gracious  courtesy, 

forge tfulness  of  self,  indomitable  will. 

3.  Steps  in  character  degeneration. 

3.  Duncan. 

1.  As  king. 

2.  As  guest. 

4.  The  Weird  Sisters. 

1.  Visible  manifestation  of  Macbeth's  evil  thoughts. 

2.  Hideous,  cruel,  and  implacable. 
F.    Style. 

EXERCISE 
I 

Write  the  plot  in  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  words. 

II 

Write  character  sketches  of  the  following  people  : 

1.  Macbeth.  3.    Banquo. 

2.  Lady  Macbeth.  4.    Macduff. 

Ill 
Write  the  substance  of  three  of  Macbeth's  great  solilo- 
quies, connecting  them  appropriately  into  one  theme. 

IV 

Write  the  outline  of  both  sides  of  a  debate  on  each  of 
the  following  questions  : 

1.  Resolved  that  Lady  Macbeth  was  Unwomanly. 

2.  Resolved  that  the  Weird  Sisters  were  the  Cause  of  Macbeth's 
Ruin. 

3.  Resolved    that   Lady   Macbeth   was    more    Guilty   than    her 
Husband. 


THE  NOVEL  AND  DRAMA  AS  LITERARY  FORMS      409 

V 

Write  a  critical  essay  on  each  of  the  following  subjects : 

1.  Shakespeare's  Use  of  Historical  Material  in  the  Play  of 
Macbeth. 

2.  The  Crises  of  Macbeth's  Life. 

3.  The  Minor  Characters  in  the  Play  of  Macbeth. 

VI 

Write  the  following  imaginary  speeches  : 

1.  A  Lament  for  Duncan. 

2.  A  Speech  of  Macbeth  to  his  Soldiers  on  the  Eve  of  the 
Decisive  Battle. 

SUMMARY 

283.  Novels  and  dramas  appeal  to  a  large  number  of 
people  because  they  contain  interesting  stories,  and 
because  they  deal  with  emotions  common  to  all  men. 
The  novel  gives  a  personal  impression  of  life  ;  the  drama, 
a  personal  demonstration  of  life. 

The  literary  forms  leading  to  the  novel  were  animal 
myths  or  fables,  folk-tales,  sagas  or  legends,  romances, 
allegories,  and  essays  on  manners  and  life.  A  romance 
is  a  story  of  marvelous  and  improbable  incident.  An 
allegory  is  a  prolonged  metaphor,  or  a  story  which  has 
underneath  it  another  story  of  deeper  meaning.  A  novel 
is  a  fictitious  story,  of  some  complexity  of  plot,  purport- 
ing to  be  modeled  after  real  life,  and  portraying  the 
working  out  of  some  ruling  passion,  commonly  that  of 
love. 

The  terms  romantic^  historical^  ethical^  and  artistic  are 
sometimes  used  to  describe  different  types  of  novels. 


410  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

The  novelist's  point  of  view  may  be  that  of  a  disinter- 
ested observer,  a  friend,  a  critic,  or  the  leading  character 
himself. 

The  plot  of  a  novel  is  the  scheme,  more  or  less  complex 
in  nature,  which  forms  the  framework.  The  essentials  of 
the  plot  are  originality,  consistency,  interest,  a  certain 
element  of  suspense,  and  a  dramatic  and  satisfactory 
climax. 

The  principal  characters  are  usually  the  hero,  the 
heroine,  and  the  villain.  The  minor  personages  are  those 
that  serve  to  develop,  or  at  least  to  explain,  the  nature 
and  the  action  of  the  principal  characters. 

Conversation  may  be  used  to  relieve  emotional  strain 
which  is  in  danger  of  becoming  too  great,  to  retard  the 
action,  or  to  reveal  the  motives,  opinions,  or  plans  of  the 
characters.  It  may  be  serious  or  merry,  even  apparently 
desultory,  but  never  commonplace  or  superfluous. 

English  drama  was  first  written  and  acted  by  priests. 
The  early  forms  of  the  English  drama  were  passion  plays, 
miracle  plays,  moralities,  and  interludes. 

Comedy  is  based  on  an  unnecessary  incongruity  in  char- 
acter or  action,  rather  than  on  accidents  of  situation  or 
of  speech ;  and  arises  from  violations  of  common  sense  and 
good  taste,  rather  than  of  morality.  A  comedy,  because  it 
aims  to  please  and  entertain,  should  end  happily. 

Tragedy  is  based  on  an  intense  struggle  between  the 
human  will  and  destiny  in  the  shape  of  external  forces, 
or  between  the  will  and  some  contending  force  within  the 
soul. 

The  climax  of  a  drama  is  the  point  of  greatest  uncer- 
tainty, the  point   at  which  the   complicating  forces   are 


THE  NOVEL  AND  DRAMA  AS  LITERARY  FORMS     411 

fully  developed,  and  the  resolving  forces  have  not  yet 
begun  to  be  effective.  It  often  occurs  in  the  third  act, 
but  may  be  placed  later. 

The  catastrophe,  or  complete  unraveling  of  the  plot, 
occurs  as  late  as  possible  in  the  fifth  act,  in  order  that 
the  artistic  effect  may  not  be  destroyed  by  a  possible 
anticlimax. 

The  classical  drama  observed  the  unities  of  time,  place, 
and  action.  Modern  drama  insists  on  only  one  of  these 
three  —  the  unity  of  action. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
POETIC  FORMS 

Poetry  makes  immortal  all  that  is  best  and  most  beautiful  in  the  world. 

Shelley. 

284.  Importance  of  the  study  of  poetic  forms.  Although 
the  student  may  not  be  called  upon  to  write  poetry,  a  care- 
ful study  of  poetic  forms  will  help  him  not  only  in  the 
appreciation  of  the  poems  which  he  reads,  but  also  in 
the  construction  of  his  own  prose  sentences.  All  that 
pertains  to  euphony  of  the  sentence  (see  §  208)  is  made 
clearer  by  this  chapter. 

285.  Difference  between  poetry  and  prose.  In  the  attempt 
to  distinguish  carefully  between  these  two  forms  of  writ- 
ing, many  famous  definitions  of  poetry  have  been  given. 
Aristotle  said,  "  Poetry  is  imitation  by  words."  According 
to  Matthew  Arnold,  "Poetry  is  the  noble  and  profound 
application  of  ideas  to  life."  Ruskin  calls  it  "the  pre- 
sentment, in  musical  form,  to  the  imagination  of  noble 
grounds  for  the  noble  emotions."  For  our  present  pur- 
pose it  is  enough  to  say  that  poetry  usually  treats  of 
lofty  subjects,  appeals  primarily  to  the  emotions,  and  uses 
forms  of  expression  not  common  to  everyday  experience ; 
while  prose  treats  of  more  ordinary  subjects,  and  uses  the 
language  of  everyday  experience. 

412 


POETIC  FORMS  413 

There  is  a  common  notion  that  the  chief  difference 
between  prose  and  poetry  is  a  difference  in  form.  While 
this  difference  is  easily  recognized  and  important,  it  is  by 
no  means  fundamental.  There  is  such  a  thing  as  poetic 
prose  and,  unfortunately,  such  a  thing  as  prosaic  verse. 

286.  Classes  of  poetry.  The  most  important  classes  of 
poetry  are  the  epic,  the  lyric,  and  the  dramatic.  The 
drama^  which  is  a  combination  of  the  other  two  forms,  has 
been  described  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

287.  Nature  of  the  epic.  An  epic  (Gk.  €7ro<?,  a  word)  is 
a  narrative  poem  of  elevated  character,  relating  usually 
the  exploits  of  a  hero.  Since  it  deals  with  the  past, 
it  depends  solely  on  imagination  and  memory  for  its 
interest.  It  is  simple  in  construction,  and  enforces  no 
moral.  Usually  the  action  is  concentrated  within  a  short 
time. 

The  long  epic  poem  includes  several  episodes  and 
employs  much  dialogue.  The  Greek  "  Iliad "  and  the 
Latin  "^^neid"  are  familiar  illustrations  of  this  form. 
"Beowulf"  is  perhaps  the  most  important  epic  in  the 
English  language. 

288.  Nature  of  the  lyric.  The  lyric  differs  greatly  from 
the  epic.  It  is  subjective,  dealing  with  feelings  rather 
than  events.  The  personality  of  the  lyric  writer  is  of  far 
more  importance  than  the  events  which  occasion  the  poem. 
It  is  concentrated  in  form  and  movement  as  compared 
with  the  epic.  While  the  epic  has  a  traditional,  uniform 
meter  —  dactylic  hexameter,  heroic  couplet,  or  heroic 
blank  verse  —  the  lyric  has  its  choice  of  a  hundred  forms, 
but  it  is  not  difficult  to  distinguish. 


414  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

289.  Familiar  forms  of  the  lyric.  Some  of  the  most 
important  forms  of  the  lyric  are  the  hymn,  the  ode, 
the  patriotic  song,  the  love  song,  the  lyric  of  nature, 
and  the  sonnet. 

1.  Hymn.  A  hymn  is  a  short  lyric  in  which  religious 
feeling  is  expressed  unrestrainedly,  as  in  Wesley's  "  Jesus, 
Lover  of  my  Soul." 

2.  Ode.  An  ode,  according  to  Edmund  W.  Gosse,  is  "  any 
strain  of  enthusiastic  and  exalted  lyrical  verse,  directed 
to  a  fixed  purpose,  and  dealing  progressively  with  one 
dignified  theme."  Evidently  the  theme  may  vary  consid- 
erably ;  Wordsworth's  "  Ode  to  Duty,"  Slielley's  "  Ode  to 
a  Skylark,"  and  Byron's  "  Ode  to  Venice  "  show  this  fact. 

3.  Patriotic  lyric.  National  hymns  abound  in  every 
country,  because  the  deep  and  intense  love  of  country 
can  be  well  expressed  by  the  lyric.  ''  Scots  w^ha  hae  wi' 
Wallace  bled  "  (Burns),  "  How  sleep  the  Brave  "  (Collins), 
"Ye  Mariners  of  England"  (Campbell),  and  "America" 
are  examples  of  this  sort. 

4.  Love  song.  Our  literature  is  wonderfully  rich  in  love 
songs.  "Take,  O  take  those  lips  away"  (in  "Measure  for 
Measure  "),  "  O  my  love  's  like  a  red,  red  rose  "  (Burns); 
"She  was  a  phantom  of  delight"  (Wordsworth),  and  "  Life 
of  life  ! "  (Shelley's  "  Prometheus  Unbound ")  give  some 
suggestion  of  the  range  that  is  to  be  found  in  this  form. 

5.  Lyric  of  nature.  This  form  is  sometimes  found 
alone,  and  sometimes  combined  Avith  other  forms.  Illus- 
trations of  the  simple  form  are  "  Hark,  hark  the  lark ! " 
("  Cymbeline  "),  "  The  year 's  at  the  spring  "  (Browning's 
"Pippa  Passes").  Milton's  "  L' Allegro  "  and  "  II  Pen- 
seroso"  are  reflective  nature  lyrics. 


POETIC  FORMS  415 

6.  Sonnet.  A  sonnet  is  a  lyric  that  deals  with  a  single 
lofty  thought  within  the  compass  of  fourteen  lines.  Wyatt 
and  Surrey  were  the  first  Englishmen  to  use  the  sonnet, 
which  was  introduced  into  England  from  Italy.  Strictly 
speaking,  the  sonnet  has  two  parts,  the  octave  and  the 
sestet.  In  the  octave,  or  first  eight  lines,  the  subject  is 
introduced  or  elaborated ;  in  the  sestet,  or  last  six  lines, 
the  conclusion  is  drawn  directly  from  the  thought  already 
expanded. 

Among  the  Italians  the  rhyming  scheme  of  the  sonnet 
was  ahhaahba  cdcdcd,  Wordsworth  uses  this  in  the 
following  sonnet. 

The  world  is  too  much  with  us;  late  and  soon,  [a] 

Getting  and  spending,  we  lay  waste  our  powers ;  [6] 

Little  we  see  in  Nature  that  is  ours  ;  [6] 

We  have  given  our  hearts  away,  a  sordid  boon !  [a] 

This  Sea  that  bares  her  bosom  to  the  moon  ;  [a] 

The  winds  that  will  be  howling  at  all  hours,  [6] 

And  are  up-gathered  now  like  sleeping  flowers ;  [6] 

For  this,  and  for  everything,  we  are  out  of  tune ;  [a] 

It  moves  us  not.     Great  God  !  I  'd  rather  be  [c] 

A  Pagan  suckled  in  a  creed  outworn  ;  [c?] 

So  might  I,  standing  on  this  pleasant  lea,  [c] 

Have  glimpses  that  would  make  me  less  forlorn  ;  [rf] 

Have  sight  of  Proteus  rising  from  the  sea  ;  [c] 

Or  hear  old  Triton  blow  his  wreathed  horn.  [rf] 

(Sonnet  XL VI) 

Shakespeare,  in  his  sonnets,  uses  three  quatrains  and  a 
couplet,  which  enables  him  to  make  a  climax  in  the  closing 
couplet.  His  rhyming  scheme  is  ahabcdcdefefgg,  as  may 
be  seen  in  the  following  sonnet. 


416  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

When  to  the  sessions  of  sweet  silent  thought  [a] 

I  summon  up  remembrance  of  things  past,  [6] 

I  sigh  the  lack  of  many  a  thing  I  sought,  [a] 

And  with  old  woes  new  wail  my  dear  time's  waste  ;  [6] 
Then  can  I  drown  an  eye,  unus'd  to  flow,  [c] 

For  precious  friends  hid  in  death's  dateless  night,  [rf] 
And  weep  afresh  love's  long  since  cancelled  woe,  [c] 
And  moan  the  expense  of  many  a  vanish'd  sight  ;  [d] 
Then  can  I  grieve  at  grievances  foregone,  ^e] 

And  heavily  from  woe  to  woe  tell  o'er  [/] 

The  sad  account  of  fore-bemoaned  moan,  [e] 

Which  I  new  pay  as  if  not  paid  before.  [/] 

But  if  the  while  I  think  on  thee,  dear  friend,  [</] 

All  losses  are  restor'd  and  sorrows  end.  [</] 

(Sonnet  XXX) 

290.  Familiar  forms  of  mixed  character.  Some  important 
forms  of  poetry  show,  in  differing  degrees,  epic,  lyric,  and 
dramatic  traits.  These  forms  are  the  legend,  the  allegory, 
and  the  ballad. 

1.  Legend.  A  legend  is  a  mythical  story  which  has  its 
foundation  in  tradition.  There  are  national  legends,  as 
Layamon's  "  Brut " ;  legends  of  the  Church,  as  Chaucer's 
"The  Prioress's  Tale"  in  the  "Canterbury  Tales";  his- 
torical legends,  as  Longfellow's  "Evangeline";  and  legends 
depending  upon  the  supernatural,  as  Coleridge's  "The 
Ancient  Mariner." 

2.  Allegory.  An  allegory  has  already  been  defined  as  a 
prolonged  metaphor.  The  great  English  example,  "The 
Faerie  Queene"  of  Spenser,  is  a  double  allegory,  having  a 
political  and  religious  significance  beneath  the  obvious 
story.  Many  short  poems  having  a  didactic  purpose,  as 
Leigh  Hunt's  "Abou  Ben  Adhem,"  are  also  allegorical 
in  character. 


POETIC   FORMS  417 

3.  Ballad.  A  ballad,  or  folk-song,  gives  one  incident 
in  the  life  of  the  central  character.  The  early  English 
ballads  have  a  rude  vigor,  a  dash,  and  a  charm  peculiar  to 
themselves.  This  may  be  plainly  seen  by  comparing  them 
with  the  more  polished  modern  ballads.  Ballads  are  some- 
times divided  into  ballads  of  tradition,  as  "  Sir  Patrick 
Spens,"  "  Chevy  Chase,"  and  the  "  Robin  Hood  "  ballads  ; 
domestic  ballads,  as  "  Annie  of  Lochroyan,"  and  "  Bonny 
Barbara  Allan " ;  and  ballads  of  superstition,  as  '*  Tom 
Thumb,"  and  the  "Demon  Lover." 

Versification 

291.  Verse.  Verse  is  that  which  is  composed  in  metri- 
cal form  —  poetry.  A  verse  is  a  line  of  poetry.  A  verse 
is  sometimes  not  distinguished  from  a  stanza,  or  group  of 
verses  ;  but  this  looser  use  of  the  word  is  confusing,  and 
therefore  not  desirable.  Blank  verse  is  poetry  without 
rhyme.  The  advantage  of  blank  verse  is  that  the  thought 
is  in  no  way  hampered  by  the  poet's  search  for  rhymes. 
It  is  most  often  used  in  long  and  serious  poems. 

292.  Scansion.  Scansion  is  distinguishing  the  metrical 
feet  of  a  verse  by  emphasis  and  pauses  of  the  voice,  or  by 
special  ^vritten  marks.  Oral  scansion  produces  very  poor 
reading,  but  is  valuable  as  a  method  of  analysis. 

293.  Caesural  pause.  A  csesural  pause  is  a  break  in  a 
verse,  occurring  in  the  middle  of  a  foot,  and  commonly 
near  the  middle  of  the  verse.  In  the  following  verse  the 
caesural  pause  is  between  "  primeval  "  and  "  the." 

This  is  the  forest  primeval  ||  the  murmuring  pines  and  the  hemlocks. 


418  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

294.  Rhythm  and  rhyme.  These  terms  are  sometimes 
confounded,  but  they  connote  quite  different  ideas. 
Rhythm  is  the  harmonious  flow  of  sounds  made  by  the 
rise  and  fall  of  tone.  Rhyme,  according  to  the  dictionary, 
is  ''correspondence  of  sound  in  terminating  words  or 
syllables  of  two  or  more  verses  that  are  comparatively 
near  together  in  a  poem." 

295.  Kinds  of  meter.  Meter  is  the  rhythmical  arrange- 
ment of  syllables  and  words  in  a  verse.  A  poetic  foot  is 
a  division  of  a  verse,  consisting  of  one  accented  syllable 
and  one  or  more  unaccented  syllables.  The  important 
kinds  of  meter  are  the  following: 

Monometer  (one  foot  to  a  verse). 

Ex.    Lochiell  | 
Dimeter  (two  feet  to  a  verse). 

Ex.    Of  thee  1  I  sing.  | 
Trimeter  (three  feet  to  a  verse) . 

Ex.    My  coun|try  't  is  |  of  thee.  | 
Tetrameter  (four  feet  to  a  verse). 

Ex.    He  pray|eth  best  |  who  lov|eth  best.  | 
Pentameter  (five  feet  to  a  verse). 

Ex.    Awake,  |  arise,  |  or  be  |  for  ev|er  fall'n  1  | 
Hexameter  (six  feet  to  a  verse). 

Ex.    This  is  the  |  forest  prilmeval,  the  ]  murmuring  |  pines 
and  the  |  hemlocks.  ] 
Heptameter  (seven  feet  to  a  verse). 

Ex.    The  mel|anchol|y  days  |  have  come,  |  the  sadjdest  of  | 
the  year.  | 
Octameter  (eight  feet  to  a  verse) . 

Ex.    Once   up{on    a  ]  midnight  |  dreary,  |  as  I  |  pondered  | 
weak  and  |  weary.  | 


POETIC  FORMS  419 

296.  Kinds  of  poetic  feet.  Poetic  feet  are  regularly  of 
one  of  two  classes :  dissyllabic  or  trisyllabic.  The  varie- 
ties of  dissyllabic  feet  are  the  following : 

Trochee  (accent  on  first  syllable). 

Ex.    Tell  m6  |  not  In  |  mournfal  |  numbers.  | 
Iambus  (accent  on  last  syllable). 

Ex.    116  pray|6th  best  |  wh6  lov|6th  best.  | 

Spondee  (accent  on  both  syllables).  This  foot  is  really  equivalent 
to  a  dactyl  or  anapest,  and  is  used  chiefly  at  the  csBSural  pause,  or  at 
the  end  of  a  line,  as  in  the  following  verse : 

Ex.    BlossSmed    th6  |  lovely  |  stars,    th6    f6r|get-me-Inots    6f 
the  I  angels.  | 

The  varieties  of  trisyllabic  feet  are  the  following  : 
Dactyl  (accent  on  first  syllable). 

Ex.    This  Is  the  I  forfist  prl|meval,  th6  |  murmuring  |  pines 
and  the  I  hemlocks. 
Amphibrach  (accent  on  second  syllable). 

Ex.    Three  fishfirs  |  wgnt  sailing  |  out  int6  |  th6  west.  -  | 
Anapest  (accent  on  third  syllable). 

Ex.    Th6  Assyrjian  came  down  |  like  a  wolf  |  on  the  fold.  | 

297.  Common  and  uncommon  varieties  of  meter.  It  will  be 
noted  that  many  varieties  of  meter  are  possible,  since  any 
one  of  the  five  kinds  of  feet  may  be  used  to  compose  verse 
in  any  one  of  the  eight  meters. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  some  of  the  possible  forms  are 
much  more  common  in  English  verse  than  the  other 
forms.  Trochaic  and  iambic  tetrameter,  iambic  pentam- 
eter, and  dactylic  hexameter  are  most  often  found.  Iam- 
bic pentameter  is  called  heroic  verse,  because  it  is  most 
used  in  epic  poetry. 


420  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Monometer,  dimeter,  and  octameter  are  very  seldom 
found.  The  latter  is  usually  written  as  two  lines  of 
tetrameter. 

298.  Irregular  verse  forms.  Sometimes  verse  seems  hard 
to  classify,  and  harder  still  to  scan.  The  difficulty  may 
arise  from  poetic  license,  which  allows  the  poet  to  change 
the  accents  of  words,  and  vary  the  length  of  the  meter  or 
of  the  poetic  feet  in  a  single  line.  A  wise  writer  never 
abuses  this  privilege,  knowing  that  after  all  it  should  be 
limited  strictly  to  cases  where  either  sense  or  form  must 
be  sacrificed.  Sometimes  the  elision  of  articles  or  of  other 
short  and  unimportant  words  will  remedy  what  seemed  at 
first  to  be  a  real  difficulty. 

299.  Qualities  of  style  most  often  found  in  poetry.  Vividness 
is  secured  by  picturesque  epithets  in  description,  and  by 
the  swing  of  the  verse  in  narration.  This  quality  is  well 
illustrated  in  Shelley.  Sublimity  is  increased  by  dignified 
and  lofty  forms  of  expression,  and  by  the  sonorous  possi- 
bilities of  the  meter.  This  is  well  seen  in  Milton's  *'  Para- 
dise Lost."  Beauty  is  one  of  the  most  marked  features  of 
poetic  expression ;  and  this  arises  from  beauty  in  the 
thought,  from  a  use  of  picturesque  words  and  phrases, 
and  sometimes  from  the  element  of  pathos  in  the  descrip- 
tion or  narration. 

EXERCISE 
I 

Bring  to  class  examples  of  the  following  kinds  of  verse, 
having  marked  the  verse  to  prove  its  classification ; 


POETIC  FORMS  421 

1.  Heroic  verse. 

2.  Iambic  tetrameter. 

3.  Trochaic  tetrameter. 

4.  Amphibrachic  tetrameter. 

5.  Iambic  hexameter. 

6.  Anapestic  tetrameter. 

II 

Scan  orally,  and  in  writing,  each  of  the  following  lines, 
naming  the  verse  from  the  prevailing  kind  of  meter  used  : 

1.  The  noblest  mind  the  best  contentment  has. 

2.  The  inaudible  and  noiseless  foot  of  Time. 

3.  Thou  marshall'st  me  the  way  that  I  was  going. 

4.  Hark,  hark  1  the  lark  at  heaven's  gate  sings, 
And  Phoebus  'gins  arise. 

5.  Drink  to  me  only  with  thine  eyes. 

6.  Life  that  dares  send 

A  challenge  to  his  end, 

And  when  it  comes,  say,  Welcome,  friend  ! 

7.  When  she  had  passed  it  seemed  like  the  ceasing  of  exquisite 
music. 

8.  I  love  it  —  I  love  it,  and  who  shall  dare 
To  chide  me  for  loving  that  old  armchair  ! 

9.  The  old  oaken  bucket,  the  iron-bound  bucket. 
10.  Hast  thou  seen  that  lordly  castle, 

That  Castle  by  the  Sea  ? 

Ill 

Point  out  the  most  marked  qualities  of  style  found  in 
the  following  poems  : 

1.  Macaulay's  "  Horatius  at  the  Bridge." 

2.  Longfellow's  "  Resignation." 

3.  Milton's  "L'Allegro." 

4.  Bryant's  "  Thanatopsis." 

5.  Scott's  "  Marmion." 


422  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

IV 

Write  a  few  verses  in  each  of  the  following  meters, 
trying  to  avoid  the  effect  of  a  parody : 

1.  Trochaic  tetrameter  (lyric). 

2.  Iambic  pentameter  or  dactylic  hexameter  (epic). 

SUMMARY 

300.  Poetry  treats  of  lofty  subjects,  appeals  to  the 
emotions,  and  uses  forms  of  expression  not  common  to 
everyday  experience.  The  most  important  classes  of 
poetry  are  the  epic,  the  lyric,  and  the  drama. 

An  epic  is  a  narrative  poem,  of  elevated  character, 
relating  usually  the  exploits  of  a  hero.  It  is  compara- 
tively simple  in  construction,  and  enforces  no  moral. 

The  lyric  is  subjective,  dealing  with  feelings  rather 
than  with  events.  It  is  not  restricted  in  form  to  a  tradi- 
tional meter,  as  is  the  epic.  The  most  important  forms 
of  the  lyric  are  the  hymn,  the  ode,  the  patriotic  song,  the 
love  song,  the  lyric  of  nature,  and  the  sonnet. 

The  legend,  the  allegory,  and  the  ballad  are  familiar 
forms  of  irregular  classification. 

Verse  is  that  which  is  composed  in  metrical  form.  A 
verse  is  a  line  of  poetry,  and  should  be  distinguished  from 
a  stanza,  which  is  a  group  of  verses. 

Scansion  is  distinguishing  the  metrical  feet  of  a  verse 
by  emphasis  or  pauses  of  the  voice,  or  by  certain  written 
marks.  A  csesural  pause  is  a  break  in  a  verse,  occurring 
in  the  middle  of  a  foot,  and  commonly  in  'the  middle  of  a 
line.  Rhythm  is  the  harmonious  flow  of  sounds  made  by 
the  rise  and  fall  of  the  voice.     Rhyme  is  correspondence 


POETIC  FORMS  423 

of  sound  in  the  terminating  words  or  syllables  of  two  or 
more  verses  that  are  comparatively  near  together  in  a 
poem. 

Meter  is  the  rhythmical  arrangement  of  syllables  and 
words  in  a  verse.  The  meters  are  monometer,  dimeter, 
trimeter,  tetrameter,  pentameter,  hexameter,  hep  tame  ter, 
and  octameter.  Of  these,  monometer  and  dimeter  are 
very  rare,  and  tetrameter,  pentameter,  and  hexameter  are 
the  most  common. 

A  poetic  foot  is  a  division  of  a  verse,  consisting  of  one 
accented  and  one  or  more  unaccented  syllables.  Poetic 
feet  are  dissyllabic  or  trisyllabic.  A  dissyllabic  foot  may 
be  a  trochee  or  an  iambus,  according  to  whether  it  is 
accented  on  the  fii-st  or  the  last  syllable.  A  trisyllabic 
foot  may  be  a  dactyl,  an  amphibrach,  or  an  anapest, 
according  to  whether  it  is  accented  on  the  first,  second, 
or  third  syllable.  A  spondee  is  a  foot  that  consists  of 
two  long  syllables,  and  is  equivalent  to  a  dactyl  or  an 
anapest. 

The  qualities  of  style  most  often  found  in  poetry  are 
vividness,  sublimity,  and  beauty. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

FIGURES  OF  SPEECH 

"  Figures  are  the  flowers  upon  the  sturdy  stem  of  common  speech." 

301.  Value  of  the  study  of  figures  of  speech.  A  study  of  the 
figures  of  speech  reveals  unsuspected  beauties  in  the  models 
of  poetry  and  prose  which  the  pupil  studies  in  his  English 
requirements,  and  affords  many  suggestions  for  strengthen- 
ing and  beautifying  his  own  sentences. 

I.     INTRODUCTION 

302.  Definition  of  figures  of  speech.  Figures  of  speech  are 
variations  of  the  literal  or  ordinary  forms  of  expression,  the 
intention  being  to  make  the  thought  more  attractive  or  more 
striking.     The  following  are  examples  of  such  variations. 

Literal  Figurative 

1.  Misfortunes  never  come  1.  When  sorrows  come, 

singly.  They  come   not   single  spies, 

but  in  battalions. 

Shakespeare. 

2.  Time   seems   short  when    we      2.  How  noiseless  falls  the  foot 

are  happy.  of  Time 

That  only  treads  on  flowers ! 
W.  R.  Spencer. 

3.  Why  cannot  I  go  to  sleep  ?  3.0,  gentle  sleep, 

Nature's  soft  nurse,  how  have 
I  frighted  thee? 

Shakespeare. 

4.  The   king   lay  wounded   and      4.  So,  like  a  shattered  column, 

helpless.  lay  the  king — Tennyson. 

424 


FIGURES   OF  SPEECH  425 

Figures  of  speech  afe  of  many  different  kinds.  The 
principal  ones  will  be  considered  in  order. 

303.  Use  of  figures.  The  chief  purposes  in  the  use  of 
figures  are  :  (1)  To  make  the  thought  clearer  and  more 
forcible,  by  explanation  and  illustration ;  (2)  To  make  the 
thought  more  agreeable  or  attractive.  Figures  are  the 
ornaments  of  speech,  but  they  should  not  be  used  unless 
they  serve  to  adorn  in  an  appropriate  way. 

11.     FIGURES   BASED   ON   RESEMBLANCE 

304.  Simile.  Simile  is  an  expressed  resemblance  between 
two  different  things.  It  is  usually  introduced  by  such 
words  as  like  and  as. 

Not  all  expressed  comparisons  are  similes.  "  The  tiger 
is  as  brave  as  the  lion  "  is  not  a  simile,  because  the  things 
compared  have  too  many  points  of  resemblance.  The  best 
similes  are  those  that  compare  things  which  are  in  most 
respects  unlike,  but  which  have  at  least  one  strong  point 
of  resemblance  in  appearance,  qualities,  or  actions,  or  in 
the  effects  which  they  produce. 

EXERCISE 

In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  things  that  are 
compared,  tell  in  what  the  resemblance  lies,  and  how  the 
comparison  is  expressed : 

1.  How  far  that  little  candle  throws  its  beams ! 

So  shines  a  good  deed  in  a  naughty  world.  -^  Shakespeare. 

2.  As  the  mountains  are  roimd  about  Jerusalem,  so  the  Lord  is 
round  about  his  people,  from  henceforth  even  forever. 

Psalms  cxxv,  2. 


426  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

3.  The  wild  geese  fly, 

Storm-sent,  from  Arctic  moors  and  fells, 

Like  a  great  arrow  through  the  sky.  —  Whittier. 

4.  Religion  is  to  the  soul  what  light  is  to  nature. 

5.  The  covetous  irian  pines  in  plenty,  like  Tantalus  up  to  his 
chin  in  water  and  yet  thirsty.  —  Adams. 

6.  It  is  with   words  as  with   sunbeams  —  the  more   they  are 
condensed,  the  deeper  they  burn.  —  Southey. 

7.  Her  hair  drooped  round  her  pallid  cheek 
Like  seaweed  on  a  clam.  —  Holmes. 

8.  To  be  mixed  in  parish  stirs 

Is  worse  than  handling  chestnut  burrs.  —  Saxe. 

9.  The  hooded  clouds,  like  friars. 

Tell  their  beads  in  drops  of  rain Longfellow. 

10.  Human  life  may  be  compared  to  a  river,  flowing  ever 
towards  the  sea  of  Eternity. 

305.  Metaphor.  Metaphor  is  another  figure  which  is 
founded  upon  the  resemblance  of  one  thing  to  another. 
It  differs  from  simile  in  that  the  comparison  is  implied 
instead  of  being  formally  expressed.  In  metaphor  one 
thing  is  spoken  of  in  language  which  suggests  a  picture 
of  something  else.  As  in  simile,  the  things  compared 
should  not  be  alike  in  too  many  particulars.  There  is  no 
metaphor  in  saying,  "  That  man  is  a  hero." 

The  following  examples  illustrate  the  difference  between 
simile  and  metaphor. 

Simile  Metaphor 

1.  Life  lies  between  two  eternities     1.  Life    is   an   isthmus  between 

as  an  isthmus  between  two  two  eternities, 

continents. 

2.  Habit  may  be  likened  to  a  cable;     2.  Habit  is  a  cable;  every  day 

every  day  we  weave  a  thread,  we  weave  a  thread,  and  soon 

and  soon  we  cannot  break  it.  we  cannot  break  it. 

3.  Happiness  is  like  sunshine;  it  is     3.  The  sunshine  of  life  is  made 

made  up  of  very  little  beams.  up  of  very  little  beams. 


FIGURES    OF  SPEECH  427 


EXERCISE 


In  the  following  sentences,  tell  what  things  are  com- 
pared, show  wherein  the  resemblance  lies,  and  change  each 
metaphor  to  the  form  of  a  simile  : 

1.  Kindness  is  the   golden  chain  by  which  society  is  bound 
together.  —  Goethe. 

2.  This  [snow]  is  tlie  poem  of  the  air, 

Slowly  in  silelit  syllables  recorded.  —  Longfellow. 

3.  By  the  street  called  By-and-by  you  reach  a  house  called  Never. 

4.  What  is  pride  ? 

A  whizzing  rocket 

That  would  emulate  a  star. 

5.  We  cannot  all   be  cabin  passengers  in  the  voyage  of  life. 
Some  must  be  before  the  mast. 

6.  Aloft  on  sky  and  mountain  wall 

Are  God's  great  pictures  hung.  —  Whittibr. 

7.  Silently,  one  by  one,  in  the  infinite  meadows  of  heaven. 
Blossomed  the  lovely  stars,  the  forget-me-nots  of  the  angels. 

Longfellow. 

8.  In  the  bright  lexicon  of  youth 

There  's  no  such  word  as  fail Bulwer. 

9.  A  certain  amount  of  opposition  is  a  great  help  to  a  man. 
Kites  rise  against  and  not  with  the  wind. 

10.   Spare  moments  are  the  gold-dust  of  time. 

306.    Mistakes  in  the  use  of  metaphor  and  simile. 

1.  Too  close  resemblance.  The  resemblance  upon  which 
the  figure  is  founded  should  not  be  too  close  and  obvious. 
It  pleases  the  mind  to  discover  a  likeness  where,  at  first 
sight,  none  appears  to  exist. 

Ex.  The  comparison  of  two  ambitious  men  (Napoleon  to 
Caesar),  two  rich  men  (Vanderbilt  to  Croesus),  two 
beautiful  women  (Eve  to  Venus),  does  not  constitute 
a  good  simile  or  metaphor. 


428  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

A  fleecy  cloud  may  be  compared  to  snow,  which  it 
closely  resembles ;  but  the  mind  is  better  pleased  with 
Lowell's  fancy  of 

A  sky  above, 

Where  one  white  cloud  like  a  stray  lamb  doth  move. 

Ossian  says  of  a  strain  of  music  : 

It  was  "  Like  the  memory  of  joys  that  are  past,  sweet 
and  mournful  to  the  soul." 

This  is  far  more  effective  than  if  he  had  compared  the 
music  to  the  song  of  a  lark  or  a  nightingale. 

Whittier,  in  describing  a  quick-tempered  woman,  says  : 

Under  low  brows,  black  with  night, 
Rayed  out  at  times  a  dangerous  light, 
The  sharp  heat-lightnings  of  her  face. 

This  unusual  metaphor  is  more  forcible  than  such  expres- 
sions as  "  the  angry  blaze  of  her  eyes  "  or  "a  face  lit  with 
flames  of  passion." 

2.  Worn-out  figures.  Many  comparisons  which  were 
originally  beautiful  and  impressive  have  become  so  familiar 
by  the  repetition  of  generations  of  writers  that  in  many 
cases  they  add  neither  grace  nor  dignity  to  the  style. 
Such  figures  may  be  described  as  trite.  Unless  particu- 
larly appropriate  to  the  subject,  they  should  be  avoided. 

Ex.  The  silver  moon ;  smiling  morn ;  raven  tresses ;  ruby 
lips ;  alabaster  brow ;  eyes  bright  as  stars ;  fair  as  a 
lily ;  cunning  as  a  fox ;  brave  as  a  lion ;  cold  as  ice ; 
the  comparison  of  passion  to  a  tempest,  time  to  a 
river;    a  mourner  to  a  drooping  flower. 


FIGURES   OF  SPEECH  429 

3.  Too  remote  reseinhlance.  Figures  should  not  be 
founded  upon  tod  remote  resemblance.  Such  similes  and 
metaphors  are  regarded  as  far-fetched.  Comparisons  of 
this  kind  do  not  embellish  the  thought  nor  do  they  add 
to  its  clearness  and  force.  On  the  other  hand,  they  divert 
the  mind  from  the  main  thought,  in  the  attempt  to  discover 
a  likeness  which  is  not  apparent. 

Ex.    Longfellow  thus  describes  the  coming  of  night : 
The  day  is  done,  and  the  darkness 
Falls  from  the  wing  of  night, 
As  a  feather  is  wafted  downward 
From  an  eagle  in  his  flight. 

When  we  study  this  figure,  we  are  disappointed  in  the 
illustration.  There  is  neither  beauty  nor  accuracy  in  com- 
paring the  darkness  that  slowly  and  almost  imperceptibly 
envelops  all  nature  to  a  feather  dropped  from  a  bird's 
wing. 

4.  Inappropriate  figures.  Figures  should  be  in  har- 
mony with  the  subject  which  they  are  intended  to  explain 
or  illustrate  or  adoni. 

In  serious  discourse,  similes  and  metaphors  should  not 
be  drawn  from  resemblances  to  things  that  are  low  and 
trivial.     Such  comparisons  are  degrading  to  the  style. 

Ex.    Our  prayers  and  God's  mercy  are  like  two  buckets  in  a 
well :  while  one  ascends,  the  other  descends. 

Here  the  thought  derives  no  force  from  the  illustration, 
because  the  comparison  is  inappropriate.  Observe  also 
that  the  bucket  which  descends  is  the  empty  one. 

J.  G.  Holland  describes  a  stream  as 

Sparkling  through  a  lovely  valley  like  a  gold  chain  over  an 
embroidered  vest. 


430.  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

We  instinctively  feel  that  a  comparison  of  this  kind  is 
in  bad  taste. 

In  humorous  writings,  it  is  often  the  author's  intention 
to  reduce  the  sublime  to  the  ridiculous  by  comparisons  of 
this  nature.  Many  examples  of  burlesque  simile  may 
be  found  in  the  writings  of  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

Ex.  And  silence,  like  a  poultice,  comes 

To  heal  the  blows  of  sound. 

The  humor  of  such  an  expression  consists  in  the  sur- 
prise of  finding  a  resemblance  between  things  which  are  so 
diverse  in  character.  There  is  danger,  however,  of  carry- 
ing this  style  of  writing  to  excess. 

Under  the  head  of  inappropriate  figures  should  be  noticed 
what  is  sometimes  called  "high-flown"  language  or  bom- 
bast. This  consists  in  the  attempt  to  elevate  low  or  trivial 
subjects  by  comparisons  with  the  lofty  and  sublime. 

Ex.  1.  A  public  speaker,  referring  to  one  of  our  common 
anniversary  days,  exclaimed,  "  Pharos  of  the  Ages, 
we  hail  thy  glimmerings  'mid  the  cataracts  of 
Time ! " 
2.  A  young  writer  describes  a  dead  cat  floating  on  the 
surface  of  the  water  as  "  complacently  crossing  the 
Styx  of  feline  futurity." 

5.  Unfamiliar  objects.  Similes  and  metaphors  should 
not  be  drawn  from  objects  with  which  the  ordinary  reader 
is  unacquainted.  Such  figures  fail  to  enlighten  the  reader, 
and  they  make  the  writer  appear  affected  and  pedantic. 

Under  the  head  of  unfamiliar  objects  may  be  noted 
comparisons  founded  upon  local  and  personal  allusions  and 
traditions,  references  to  obscure  places,  mention  of  obscure 
characters  in  mythology,  romance,  or  history,  and  facts  in 


FIGURES   OF  SPEECH  431 

science  or  philosophy,  or  technical    terms   pertaining  to 
trades  and  professions. 

6.  Strained  metaphors.  Metaphors  should  not  be  car- 
ried too  far.  If  the  comparison  is  drawn  out  into  trivial 
details,  the  effect  is  wearisome  to  the  reader  and  l)elittling 
to  the  thought. 

Ex.       Each  year  to  ancient  friendships  adds  a  ring, 
As  to  an  oak,  and  precious  more  and  more, 
Without  deservingness  or  help  of  ours, 
They  grow,  and  silent,  wider  spread,  each  year, 
Their  unbought  ring  of  shelter  or  of  shade. 

This  impresses  us  as  a  happy  thought,  well  expressed; 
but  when  the  poet  goes  on  to  say, 

Sacred  to  me  the  lichens  on  the  bark 
Which  Nature's  milliners  would  scrape  away, 

we  feel  that  he  has  carried  the  metaphor  too  far. 

7.  Mixed  metaphors.  The  fault  here  referred  to  has  two 
manifestations :  the  confusion  of  different  metaphors  in 
the  same  sentence,  and  the  intermingling  of  metaphorical 
language  with  literal. 

Ex.  1.  [Of  confused  metaphor.]  May  the  word  preached  be 
like  a  nail  driven  in  a  sure  place,  sending  its  roots 
downward  and  its  branches  upward,  spreading  itself 
like  a  green  bay  tree,  fair  as  the  moon,  clear  as  the 
sun,  and  terrible  as  an  army  with  banners. 
2.  [Of  the  literal  blended  with  the  metaphorical.]  He 
was  the  very  keystone  of  the  state,  and  remarkable 
for  his  delicate  handwriting. 

This  is  a  serious  fault  in  composition.  It  is  evident 
that  either  the  metaphorical  or  the  literal  form  of  expres- 
sion should  be  maintained  until  the  thought  is  completed. 


432  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISE 

Criticise  the  following  faulty  figures: 

1.  Jonas,  my  son,  you  are  entering  upon  your  life  ;  before  you 
the  doors  of  the  future  open  wide,  and,  like  a  young  squirrel  escap- 
ing from  his  cage,  you  go  forth  to  navigate  the  sea  of  life  upon  your 
own  wings. 

2.  Her  cheeks  bloomed  with  roses  and  health. 

3.  Ideas  rejected  peremptorily  at  the  time  often  rankle  and  bear 
fruit  by  and  by. 

4.  He  flung  his  powerful  frame  into  the  saddle  and  his  great 
soul  into  the  cause. 

5.  This  world  with  all  its  trials  is  the  furnace  through  which  the 
soul  must  pass  and  be  developed  before  it  is  ripe  for  the  next  world. 

6.  The  very  recognition  of  these  or  any  of  them  by  the  juris- 
prudence of  a  nation  is  a  mortal  wound  to  the  very  keystone  upon 
which  the  whole  vast  arch  of  morality  reposes. 

7.  Some  of  these  groundworks  are,  like  sand,  lacking  in  power 
and  solidity  to  sustain  the  mighty  edifice  of  Christian  sanctification ; 
and  so  it  comes  to  pass,  too  frequently,  that  men  who  did  run  well 
fail  in  their  course  and  make  shipwreck  of  both  faith  and  goodness. 

8.  Sailing  on  the  sea  of  life,  we  are  often  in  danger  from  the 
temptations  around  us. 

9.  Virtue  alone  can  save  us  from  the  hosts  of  evil  when  they  roll 
in  upon  us. 

10.  He  alone  can  manage  the  storm-tossed  ship  of  state  on  its  march. 

11.  Hope,  the  balm  of  life,  darts  a  ray  of  light  through  the 
thickest  gloom. 

12.  Eaton,  Davenport,  and  five  others  were  the  seven  pillars  for 
the  next  House  of  Wisdom  in  the  wilderness.  In  August,  1639, 
the  seven  pillars  assembled,  possessing  for  the  time  full  power. 

13.  We  must  keep  the  ball  rolling  until  it  becomes  a  thorn  in 
the  side  of  Congress. 

14.  Opposite  in  the  blue  vault  stood  the  moon  like  a  silver 
shield,  raining  her  bright  arrows  on  the  sea. 

15.  The  little  church  at  Jonesville  is  once  more  tossed  upon  the 
waves,  a  sheep  without  a  shepherd. 


FIGURES   OF  SPEECH  433 

307.  Allegory.  Allegory  is  also  founded  upon  resem- 
blance ;  but  the  comparison  is  more  extended  than  in 
simile  and  metaphor.  An  allegory  is  a  fictitious  story 
designed  to  teach  some  abstract  truth  by  the  use  of 
symbolic  language.  Short  allegories  are  called  fables 
or  parables. 

The  difference  between  simile,  metaphor,  and  allegory 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  selection  in  which 
three  ways  of  representing  life  as  a  day's  journey  are 
shown. 

[Simile.]  Life  may  be  compared  to  a  day's  journey  from  our 
Father's  house  "  into  a  far  country  "  and  home  again. 

[Metaphor.]  From  the  cradle  to  the  grave  is  but  a  day's 
journey. 

[Allegory.]  One  bright  morning  a  child  left  his  father's  house 
and  wandered  out  into  the  wide  world.  Birds  sang  in  the  tree-tops, 
and  gay  butterflies  fluttered  among  the  flowers  which  grew  on  every 
side.  The  child  ran  here  and  there,  chasing  the  butterflies.  He 
gathered  the  flowers  until  his  hands  could  hold  no  more.  So  the 
morning  wore  on. 

As  the  sun  rose  higher,  the  birds  ceased  their  songs.  Noon 
found  the  child  hot  and  weary  with  chasing  butterflies.  The 
flowers  in  his  hands  drooped  and  faded.  The  way  became  rougher 
and  steeper  as  he  went  on,  and  often  he  stumbled  over  the  stones 
in  his  path. 

After  a  time  he  noticed  that  many  of  the  stones  around  him 
contained  gleams  of  gold  and  veins  of  silver,  and  sometimes  a 
sparkling  gem  firmly  imbedded  in  the  coarse  rock. 

« I  will  gather  these  beautiful  stones,"  said  he,  "  for  they  will 
not  fade  as  did  the  flowers." 

But  the  jewels  were  fast  in  the  rocks,  and,  with  all  his  strength, 
he  could  not  loosen  them.  Tears  came  to  the  child's  eyes  when  he 
found  that  all  these  precious  things  must  be  left  behind,  because  he 
was  not  strong  enough  to  carry  the  stones  in  which  they  were  fixed. 


434  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

Presently  he  grew  braver,  and  said  to  himself,  "  Perhaps  among  the 
little  stones  I  may  find  some  jewels."  So,  as  the  afternoon  wore 
away,  he  filled  his  handkerchief  with  shining  pebbles,  and  carried 
the  precious  bundle  on  his  back,  while  with  his  one  free  hand  he 
grasped  every  little  stone  that  glistened  in  his  path. 

As  the  shadows  grew  longer,  his  strengtli  began  to  fail.  His 
feet  were  bleeding  from  contact  with  the  sharp  rocks,  and  the  burden 
on  his  back  seemed  crushing  him  to  the  earth.  Stopping  occasion- 
ally to  rest,  he  examined  the  pebbles  which  he  had  collected  and 
found  that  most  of  them  were  worthless  ;  so,  a  few  at  a  time,  he 
threw  them  all  away. 

As  the  dew  began  to  fall,  he  sighed  :  "  I  am  so  tired !  How 
pleasant  it  must  be  now  at  home ;  and  how  far  away  I  have 
wandered!     I  must  hasten  back  before  night  comes." 

The  stars  came  out  to  light  him  on  his  way,  and,  empty-handed, 
he  went  home,  to  find  rest  and  shelter  in  his  father's  house. 

Suggestions 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  expression  "his   father's 
house"? 

2.  What  period  of  life  is  meant  by  the  morning? 

3.  What  is  represented  by  the  birds  and  buttei-flies  ? 

4.  What  by  the  flowers? 

5 .  Give  a  literal  expression  for  "  As  the  sun  rose  higher." 

6.  What  is  pictured  by  the  fading  flowers? 

7.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  "  stones  in  the  path." 

8.  Why  is  it  proper  to  speak  of  the  way  as  growing  steeper? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  noon? 

10.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  gold  and  jewels  among  the 
rocks  ? 

11.  What  experience  of  human  life  is  expressed  in  the  sentence 
beginning,  "  Tears  came  to  the  child's  eyes  "  ? 

12.  What  is  meant  by  the  pebbles? 

13.  Explain  the  expression  "  As  the  shadows  grew  longer." 

14.  What  was  the  burden  which  he  carried? 

15.  What  is  meant  by  his  throwing  away  the  pebbles? 


FIGURES   OF  SPEECH  435 

16.  What  is  meant  by  the  falling  of  the  dew? 

17.  Express  in  literal  language  the  quotation  beginning,  "  I  am 
so  tired." 

18.  What  is  meant  by  the  stars  coming  out  to  light  him? 

19.  What  is  the  special  significance  of  the  expression  "empty- 
handed"? 

20.  Tell  the  story  in  literal  language. 

308.  Personification.  Personification  consists  in  attrib- 
uting life  or  animation  to  inanimate  things  or  to  abstract 
ideas. 

There  are  three  chief  kinds  of  personification : 

1.  That  produced  by  raising  an  inanimate  object  to  the 
rank  of  an  animal. 

Ex.   The  wind  howled. 

2.  That  produced  by  raising  an  animal  to  the  rank  of 
a  human  being. 

Ex.    The  dog  laughed  and  said,  "  You  don't  deceive  me  that 
way." 

3.  That  produced  by  raising  an  abstraction  to  the  rank 
of  human  life. 

Ex.    Freedom  shrieked. 

EXERCISE 

In  the  following  selections,  tell  how  personification  is 
suggested,  and  what  form  of  the  figure  is  used: 

1.  Kind  Fancy  plays  the  fairy  godmother.  —  Lowell. 

2.  Scowling  turrets  and  frowning  battlements. 

3.  The  years  between 

Have  taught  some  sweet,  some  bitter  lessons.  —  Lowell. 

4.  Fair  Science  frowned  not  on  his  humble  birth, 
And  Melancholy  marked  him  for  her  own.  —  Gkay. 


436  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

5.  Creaking  with  laughter  swings  the  old  barn  door 
At  little  winking  seeds  upon  the  floor, 
Dropped  from  four  hungry  barrels  in  a  row. 

6.  Procrastination  is  the  thief  of  time.  —  Young. 

7.  Angel  of  Peace,  thou  hast  wandered  too  long.  —  Holmes. 

8.  Joy  and  Temperance  and  Repose 

Slam  the  door  on  the  doctor's  nose.  —  Longfellow. 

(Translation.) 

9.  O  Nature,  how  fair  is  thy  face 

And  how  light  is  thy  heart !  —  Owen  Meredith. 
10.    All  day  the  sea-waves  sobbed  with  sorrow.  —  Whittier. 


III.     FIGURES  BASED  ON  CONTRAST 

309.  Antithesis.  Antithesis  is  an  opposition  or  contrast 
of  words  or  sentiments  occurring  in  the  same  sentence. 
Antithesis  is  a  figure  founded  upon  unlikeness. 

The  best  examples  of  antithesis  are  those  in  which 
the  contrast  is  the  most  forcible.  Verbs  should  be  con- 
trasted with  verbs,  adjectives  with  adjectives,  nouns  with 
nouns,  etc. 

Ex.  Deeds  show  what  we  are ;  words,  what  we  should  be. 

Often  there  is  a  double  or  even  a  triple  contrast  in  the 
same  sentence. 

Ex.  Silence  is  deep  as  Eternity :  speech  is  shallow  as  Time. 

Here  "Silence"  and  "speech,"  "deep"  and  "shallow," 
"  Eternity"  and  "  Time  "  are  contrasted. 

EXERCISE 

In  the  following  sentences,  tell  what  things  are  con- 
trasted, and  state  whether  there  is  more  than  one  contrast 
in  each  sentence : 


FIGURES   OF  SPEECH  437 

1.  Better  to  reign  in  hell  than  serve  in  heaven.  —  Milton. 

2.  Fools  rush  in  where  angels  fear  to  tread.  —  Pope. 

3.  Character  is  what  we  are  ;  reputation  is  what  others  think 
we  are. 

4.  The  weary  to  sleep  and  the  wounded  to  die.  —  Campbell. 

5.  Thoughts  that  breathe  and  words  that  burn.  —  Gray. 

6.  To  err  is  human  ;  to  forgive,  divine.  —  Pope. 

7.  Strain  at  a  gnat  and  swallow  a  camel.  —  Matthew  xxiii,  24. 

8.  As  sad  as  earth,  as  sweet  as  heaven.  —  Holmes. 

9.  From  grave  to  gay,  from  lively  to  severe.  —  Pope. 

10.    God  made  the  country,  and  man  made  the  town.  —  Cowper. 

310.  Epigram.  Epigram  formerly  meant  an  inscription 
on  a  monument  —  an  epitaph.  It  is  used  now  with  refer- 
ence to  a  brief,  pointed  saying  that  has  the  nature  of  a 
proverb.  The  best  epigrams  are  those  in  which  there  is  an 
apparent  contradiction  between  the  intended  meaning  and 
the  form  of  the  expression. 

Ex.    Well  begun  is  half  done. 

Like  antithesis,  epigram  is  based  upon  contrast.  Puns 
are  often  expressed  by  epigrams. 

EXERCISE 

What  essential  quality  of  good  writing  is  secured  by 
the  use  of  epigram  in  the  following  sentences? 

1.  Great  truths  are  often  said  in  the  fewest  words. 

2.  He  is  the  richest  who  is  content  with  the  least.  —  Socrates. 

3.  The  more  we  do,  the  more  we  can  do ;  the  more  busy  we  are, 
the  more  leisure  we  have.  —  Hazlitt. 

4.  The  child  is  father  of  the  man.  —  Wordsworth. 

5.  A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing.  —  Pope. 

6.  Verbosity  is  cured  by  a  wide  vocabulary. 

7.  Beauty  when  unadorned  is  then  adorned  the  most. 

8.  The  fastest  colors  are  those  that  won't  run. 


438  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

9.    A  new  way  to  contract  debts  —  pay  them  off  I 
10.    Beneath  this  stone  my  wife  doth  lie ; 

She  's  now  at  rest,  and  so  am  I Old  Epitaph. 


IV.     FIGURES  BASED  ON  OTHER  RELATIONS 

311.    Metonymy.     Metonymy  means  a  change  of  name. 

The  thing  spoken  of  and  the  thing  meant  may  be 
wholly  unlike,  but  the  relation  between  them  is  such 
that  the  mention  of  one  suggests  the  other. 

Ex.    "  The  drunkard  loves   his  bottle."     Here  there  is  no 
resejjihlance,  but  very  close  relation. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  metonymy.  The  following 
are  among  the  most  common  : 

1.  Container  for  thing  contained. 

Ex.    The  kettle  boils.     (Meaning  the  water  in  the  kettle.')    - 

2.  Sign  for  thing  signified. 

Ex.    He  deserves  the  palm.    (Meaning  the  reward  for  victory.) 

3.  Cause  for  effect. 

Ex.    Have  you  read  Shakespeare  ?     (That  is,  his  works.) 

4.  Effect  for  cause. 

Ex.    Gray  hairs  (i.e.  age)  should  be  respected. 

EXERCISE 

In  the  following  examples,  point  out  each  figure,  and 
tell  what  kind  of  metonymy  it  is : 

1.  Our  ships  opened  fire. 

2.  Streaming  grief  his  faded  cheek  bedewed. 

3.  There  is  too  much  red  tape  about  this  system. 

4.  He  addressed  the  Chair. 


FIGURES    OF  SPEECH  439 

5.  The  bench,  the  bar,  the  pulpit. 

6.  His  steel  gleamed  on  high. 

7.  He  is  an  excellent  shot. 

8.  All  flesh  is  grass.  —  Isaiah  xl,  6. 

9.  He  beheld  a  sea  of  faces. 

10.    Let  us  gather  around  the  festive  board. 

Note.  —  Some  authorities  regard  as  metonijiny  the  putting 
of  the  name  of  the  material  of  which  an  object  is  made  for 
the  name  of  the  thing  itself.  Others  regard  this  as  an  example 
of  synecdoche.  The  connection  in  which  the  word  is  used  will 
commonly  determine  which  figure  it  constitutes. 

312.  Synecdoche.  Synecdoche  consists  in  putting  a  part 
for  the  whole,  or  the  whole  for  a  part. 

Ex.  1.    Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread.     (Part  for  whole.) 
2.    The  world  knows  his  worth.     (Whole  for  part.) 

EXERCISE 

In  the  following  examples,  point  out  the  figures : 

1.  We  have  tea  at  six  o'clock. 

2.  He  employs  fifty-seven  hands. 

3.  I  will  not  be  paid  in  paltry  gold. 

4.  The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a  wolf  on  the  fold.  —  Byron. 

5.  The  cattle  upon  a  thousand  hills.  —  Psalms  1,  10. 

6.  A  maiden  of  sixteen  summers. 

7.  The  canvas  exhibited  by  this  artist  is  a  marvelous  production. 

8.  A  life  on  the  ocean  wave,  a  home  on  the  rolling  deep. 

9.  Ten  thousand  fleets  sweep  over  thee  in  vain.  —  Byron. 
10.  She  bestowed  her  hand  and  heart  upon  a  worthy  man. 

313.  Apostrophe.  Apostrophe  is  direct  address  to  the 
absent  as  if  they  were  present,  to  the  dead  as  if  they  were 
living,  or  to  inanimate  things  as  if  they  had  life. 

It  is  often  combined  with  metaphor  and  pei*sonification. 


440  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


EXERCISE 

In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  apostrophe, 
and  tell  whether  it  is  combined  with  other  figures: 

1.  Gentle  Spring,  in  sunshine  clad, 

Well  dost  thou  thy  power  display. — Longfellow. 

2.  Thou  hast  taught  me,  Silent  River, 

Many  a  lesson,  deep  and  long.  —  Longfellow. 

3.  O   thou   that    rollest    above,    round    as   the   shield    of    my 
fathers !     [To  the  sun.]  —  Ossian. 

4.  Thus,  O  Genius,  are  thy  footprints  hallowed.  —  Longfellow. 

5.  Toll!  tolll  toll! 

Thou  bell  by  billows  swung.  —  Mrs.  Sigourney. 

6.  My  country,  't  is  of  thee, 
Sweet  land  of  liberty, 

Of  thee  I  sing.  —  Samuel  F.  Smith. 

7.  You  moon,  have  you  done  something  wrong  in  heaven. 
That  God  has  hidden  your  face  ?  —  Jean  Ingelow. 

8.  Go,  little  book,  whose  pages  hold 
Those  garnered  years  in  loving  trust. 

9.  O    Death,    where   is   thy   sting?      O    Grave,    where   is   thy 
victory  ?  —  I  Corinthians  xv,  55. 

10.   Ye  winds  of  memory,  sweep  the  silent  lyre.  —  Holmes. 

314.  Exclamation.  Sometimes  a  statement,  instead  of 
being  put  in  a  declarative  form,  is  made  more  forcible 
by  being  expressed  in  an  exclamatory  style.  When  the 
thought  springs  from  real  emotion,  we  may  call  the  figure 
exclamation. 

Not  every  exclamatory  sentence,  however,  contains  the 
rhetorical  figure  called  exclamation. 

Ex.    "  Oh,  yes  !  what  a  pity  !  "  is  exclamatory,  but  does  not 
contain  the  figure. 


FIGURES    OF  SPEECH  441 


EXERCISE 

Show  that  the  following  sentences  contain  the  figure  of 
exclamation,  and  change  them  to  the  declarative  form : 

1.  Farewell,  a  long  farewell,  to  all  my  greatness  !  —  Siiakespeark. 

2.  How  poor  are  they  that  have  not  patience  !  —Shakespeare. 

3.  But  oh,  for  the  touch  of  a  vanished  hand, 

And  the  sound  of  a  voice  that  is  still!  —  Tennyson. 

4.  How  dear  to  this  heart  are  the  scenes  of  my  childhood, 
When  fond  recollection  presents  them  to  view  ! 

WOOUWORTII. 

5.  O   strong   hearts    and   true  !     Not   one   went  back   in   the 

Mayflower.  —  Longfellow. 

6.  Oh,  what  a  tangled  web  we  weave 

When  first  we  practice  to  deceive  !  —  Scott. 

7.  A  horse  !  a  horse  !  my  kingdom  for  a  horse  !  —  Shakespeare. 

8.  Oh,  the  glorious  Thanksgivings 

Of  the  days  that  are  no  more  !  —  Smuller. 

9.  Oh  that  the  rules  of  our  living 

More  like  to  the  golden  would  be  !  —  Noursb. 
10.   Ah  !  vainest  of  all  things 

Is  the  gratitude  of  kings.  — Longfellow. 

315.  Interrogation.  When  a  question  is  asked,  not  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  an  answer,  but  for  rhetorical 
effect,  there  is  the  figure  of  interrogation.  Not  e very- 
interrogative  sentence,  of  course,  contains  the  figure. 

An  affirmative  interrogation  is  an  emphatic  form  of  denial. 

Ex.    "Am  I  Rome's  slave?"  is   understood  to  mean,  You 
well  know  that  I  am  not  Rome's  slave. 

A  negative  interrogation  is  an  emphatic  affirmation. 

Ex.    "Am  I  not  an  apostle?    am  I  not  free?"  means  I  am 
an  apostle,  etc. 


442  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


EXERCISE 

In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  effect  of  each 
interrogation,  and  change  it  to  literal  language : 

1.  What  man  is  free  from  sin  ? 

2.  Am  I  my  brother's  keeper? —  Genesis  iv,  9. 

3.  Who  is  not  proud  to  be  an  American  ? 

4.  Hast  thou  a  charm  to  stay  the  morning  star 
In  his  steep  course  ?  —  Coleridge. 

5.  Shall  mortal  man  be  more  just  than  God?  —  Job  iv,  17. 

6.  Hath  he  not  always  treasures,  always  friends  — 
The  good,  great  man  ?  —  Coleridge. 

7.  Can  the  Ethiopian  change  his  skin  or  the  leopard  his  spots? 

Jeremiah  xiii,  23. 

8.  Is  life  so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be  purchased  at  the 
price  of  chains  and  slavery?  —  Patrick  Henry. 

9.  Can  Honor's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust  ? 

Or  Flattery  soothe  the  dull  cold  ear  of  death  ?  —  Gray. 
10.    Hast  thou  entered  into  the  treasures  of  the  snow  ?  or  hast 
thou  seen  the  treasures  of  the  hail?  —  Job  xxxviii,  22. 

316.  Hyperbole.  Hyperbole  is  exaggeration  for  effect. 
It  is  sometimes  effective  in  descriptions  of  the  grand 
and  sublime.  Often,  however,  it  is  absurd,  and  has  the 
opposite  effect  from  that  intended. 

The  extravagant  use  of  strong  adjectives  is  a  bad  habit 
in  conversation  and  in  writing.  Extravagant  comparisons 
also  should  be  avoided. 

The  following  are  examples  of  absurd  hyperbole : 

Ex.  "I  am  tired  to  death";  "tickled  to  pieces";  "hot  as 
fire";  "cold  as  ice";  "crazy  with  the  toothache"; 
" awfully  glad "  ;  " excruciatingly  hungry  "  ;  "a  per- 
fectly magnificent  time";   "a  lovely  pug  dog." 


FIGURES   OF  SPEECH  '  443 


EXERCISE 

In  the  following  sentences  show  in  what  the  hyperbole 
consists ; 

1.  Waves  mountain  high  broke  over  the  reef. 

2.  They  were   swifter   than   eagles;   they  were   stronger  than 
lions.  —  II  Samuel  i,  23. 

3.  The  tumult  reaches  the  stars. 

4.  Rivers  of  waters  run  down  mine  eyes,  because  they  keep  not 
thy  law.  —  Psalms  cxix,  136. 

5.  Every  sentence  began  or  closed  with  the  name  of  Priscilla. 

Longfellow. 

6.  I  've  been  looking  all  over  creation  for  you. 

7.  A  rescued  land 

Sent  up  a  shout  of  victory  from  the  field, 
That  rocked  her  ancient  mountains. 

8.  He  was  so  gaunt  that  the  case  of  a  flageolet  would  have  been 
a  mansion  for  him. 

9.  And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day,  that  the  mountains 
shall  drop  down  new  wine,  and  the  hills  shall  flow  with  milk. 

Joel  iii,  18. 
10.   Here  [at  Concord]  once  the  embattled  farmers  stood, 
And  fired  the  shot  heard  round  the  world.  —  Emerson. 

317.  Climax.  Climax  is  a  series  of  thoughts  or  state- 
ments which  gradually  increase  in  importance. 

Therefore,  in  true  climax  a  weaker  or  less  important 
thought  never  follows  a  stronger  one. 

Anticlimax  revei-ses  the  order  of  the  expressions,  ending 
with  the  weakest  or  least  important  thought  or  circum- 
stance.    This  is  often  used  in  humorous  writings. 


444  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

EXERCISE 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out  the  climaxes  and 
improve  those  that  are  not  well  arranged: 

1.  Since  concord  was  lost,  friendship  was  lost ;  fidelity  was  lost ; 
liberty  was  lost,  —  all  was  lost  I 

2.  Here  I  stand  for  impeachment  or  trial !  I  dare  accusation  ! 
I  defy  the  honorable  gentleman  !  I  defy  the  government !  I  defy 
their  whole  phalanx  !  —  Grattan. 

3.  The  enemy  is  now  hovering  upon  our  borders,  preparing  to 
press  the  knife  to  our  throats,  to  devastate  our  fields,  to  quarter 
themselves  in  our  houses,  and  to  devour  our  poultry. 

4.  How  then  shall  they  call  on  him  in  whom  they  have  not 
believed  ?  and  how  shall  they  believe  in  him  of  whom  they  have  not 
heard?  and  how  shall  they  hear  without  a  preacher? — Romans  x,  14. 

5.  Oh  dear  !   oh  dear  !  what  shall  T  do? 
I  've  lost  my  wife  and  seed  corn  too  ! 

6.  David  was  a  great  warrior,  a  great  statesman,  a  great  poet, 
and  a  skillful  performer  on  the  harp. 

7.  Great  men,  such  as  Washington,  Adams,  Jefferson,  Arnold, 
and  the  friend  of  my  worthy  opponent. 

8.  He  lost  his  wife,  his  child,  his  household  goods,  and  his  dog, 
at  one  fell  swoop. 

9.  I  am  thinking,  if  Aunt  knew  so  little  of  sin, 

What  a  wonder  Aunt  Tabitha's  aunt  must  have  been  ; 
And  her  grand-aunt,  —  it  scares  me  !  —  Holmes. 

10.  The  arm  of  the  Lord  is  as  fixed  as  fate,  as  sure  as  eternity, 
as  strong  as  the  rock  of  Gibraltar. 

318.  Irony.  Irony  suggests  a  meaning  contrary  to  the 
literal  sense  of  the  words;  as,  when  we  praise  a  thing, 
really  meaning  to  ridicule  it. 


FIGURES   OF  SPEECH  446 

EXERCISE 

Explain  the  irony  in  the  following  extracts  : 

1.  What  has  the  gray-haired  prisoner  done? 
Has  murder  stained  liis  hands  with  gore? 
Not  so  ;  his  crime  is  a  fouler  one  — 

God  made  the  old  man  poor.  —  Whittier. 

2.  Although  I  would  have  you  early  instill  into  your  children's 
hearts  the  love  of  cruelty,  yet  by  no  means  call  it  by  its  true  name, 
but  encourage  them  in  it  under  the  name  of  fun. 

3.  Have  not  the  Indians  been  kindly  and  justly  treated  ?  Have 
not  the  temporal  things,  the  vain  baubles  and  filthy  lucre  of  this 
w^orld,  which  were  too  apt  to  engage  their  worldly  and  selfish 
thoughts,  been  benevolently  taken  from  them?  and  have  they  not, 
instead  thereof,  been  taught  to  set  their  affections  on  things  above  ? 

4.  Here  under  leave  of  Brutus,  and  the  rest, 
(For  Brutus  is  an  honourable  man ; 

So  are  they  all,  all  honourable  men  ;) 
Come  I  to  speak  in  Caesar's  funeral. 
He  was  my  friend,  faithful  and  just  to  me  ; 
But  Brutus  says  he  was  ambitious  ; 
And  Brutus  is  an  honourable  man. 


Good  friends,  sweet  friends,  let  me  not  stir  you  up 

To  such  a  sudden  flood  of  mutiny. 

They  that  have  done  this  deed,  are  honourable  ; 

What  private  griefs  they  have,  alas  !  I  know  not. 

That  made  them  do't;  they  are  wise  and  honourable, 

And  will,  no  doubt,  with  reasons  answer  you.  —  Shakespeare. 

5.  Cry  aloud :  for  he  is  a  god ;  either  he  is  talking,  or  he  is 
pursuing,  or  he  is  in  a  journey,  or  peradventure  he  sleepeth,  and 
must  be  waked.      [Elijah  to  the  priests  of  Baal.]  —  I  Kings  xviii,  27. 


446  ,  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

319.    Other  figures. 

1.  Vision  consists  in  describing  past,  absent,  or  imagi- 
nary scenes  as  if  they  were  actually  before  our  eyes. 

It  is  frequently  combined  with  personification  and 
apostrophe. 

Ex.       I  see  before  me  the  gladiator  lie  ; 

He  leans  upon  his  hand  —  his  manly  brow 

Consents  to  death,  but  conquers  agony, 

And  his  drooped  head  sinks  gradually  low.  — Byron. 

2.  Euphemism  is  the  mention  of  disagreeable  things  by 
agreeable  names. 

Ex.  1.    "She  certainly  displays  as  little  vanity  in  regard  to 
her  personal  appearance  as  any  young  lady  I  ever 
saw,"  may  be  a  delicate  way  of  saying  She  is  untidy. 
2.    "She  suffers  from  an  over-active  imagination,"  mean- 
ing She  is  inclined  to  exaggerate. 

3.  Onomatopoeia  is  adapting  the  sound  to  the  sense. 
Poe's  poem  "  The  Bells "  and  Southey's  "  Cataract  of 
Lodore  "  contain  fine  examples  of  this  figure. 

Ex.       How  they  tinkle,  tinkle,  tinkle. 
In  the  icy  air  of  night  ! 
While'  the  stars  that  oversprinkle 
All  the  heavens  seem  to  twinkle 
With  a  crystalline  delight,  — 
Keeping  time,  time,  time, 
In  a  sort  of  Runic  rhyme. 

To  the  tintinnabulation  that  so  musically  wells 
From  the  bells,  bells,  bells,  bells, 
Bells,  bells,  bells,  — 
From  the  jingling  and  the  tinkling  of  the  bells.  — Poe. 


FIGURES   OF  SPEECH  447 

4.  Litotes  consists  in  making  a  statement  by  denying 
its  opposite. 

Ex.  The  immortal  names 

That  were  not  born  to  die.     (Tliat  is,  that  will 
live.) 

5.  Parallel  is  a  continued  comparison  of  two  similar 
objects,  showing  the  points  of  resemblance  and  of  differ- 
ence.    It  is  an  extended  antithesis. 

Ex.  The  style  of  Dryden  is  capricious  and  varied  ;  that  of 
Pope  is  cautious  and  uniform.  Dryden  obeys  the 
motions  of  his  own  mind;  Pope  constrains  his  mind 
to  his  rules  of  composition.  Dryden  is  sometimes 
vehement  and  rapid ;  Pope  is  always  smooth,  uniform, 
and  gentle.  Dryden's  page  is  a  natm-al  field,  rising 
into  inequalities,  and  diversified  by  the  varied  exuber- 
ance of  abundant  vegetation  ;  Pope's  is  a  velvet  lawn, 
shaven  by  the  scythe  and  leveled  by  the  roller. 

JOHNSOX. 

6.  Allusion  is  a  reference  to  some  familiar  event  in 
history  or  romance,  or  to  some  familiar  expression  in 
literature,  for  the  purpose  of  explanation,  description, 
or  illustration. 

Ex.  1.         When  I  was  a  beggarly  boy, 

And  lived  in  a  cellar  damp,  "^^ 

I  had  not  a  friend  nor  a  toy, 

But  I  had  Aladdin's  lamp. 

When  I  could  not  sleep  for  cold, 

I  had  fire  enough  in  my  brain  ; 

And  builded  with  roofs  of  gold 

My  beautiful  castles  in  Spain.  —  Lowell. 

2.        He  was  the  Achilles  of  the  war. 


448  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

7.  Alliteration  is  not  strictly  a  figure  of  speech,  but  is 
sometimes  called  a  figure  of  emphasis.  It  consists  in  the 
repetition  of  the  same  initial  sound  in  successive  words. 
The  use  of  this  device  was  the  distinguishing  characteristic 
of  early  Anglo-Saxon  poetry ;  modern  poetry  also  contains 
many  effective  examples. 

EXERCISE 

Point  out  and  name  all  the  figures  in  the  following 
selections : 

1.  He  that  would  govern  others  must  first  be  master  of  himself. 

2.  Tread  softly  and  speak  low  ; 

For  the  old  year  lies  a-dying.  —  Tennyson. 

3.  Blue  were  her  eyes  as  the  fairy  flax.  —  Longfellow. 

4.  Stars  of  the  summer  night ! 
Far  in  yon  azure  deeps 

Hide,  hide  your  golden  light !  —  Longfellow. 

5.  So  even  ran  his  line  of  life, 

The  neighbors  thought  it  odd.  —  Saxe. 

6.  Eoll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  ocean,  roll !  —  Byron. 

7.  Then,  Time,  let  not  a  drop  be  spilt ; 
Hand  me  the  cup  whene'er  thou  wilt ; 
'T  is  thy  rich  stirrup-cup  to  me ; 

I  '11  drink  it  down  right  smilingly.  —  Lanier. 

8.  To  arms  !  they  come  !  the  Greek  !  the  Greek !  —  Halleck. 

9.  A  Gourd  wound  itself  around  a  lofty  Palm,  and  in  a  few 
days  climbed  to  its  very  top.  "  How  old  may'st  thou  be  ? "  asked 
the  newcomer.  "About  a  hundred  years."  "About  a  hundred 
years,  and  no  taller !  Only  see !  I  have  grown  as  tall  as  you  in 
fewer  days  than  you  can  count  years." 

"  I  know  that  very  well,"  replied  the  Palm.  "  Every  summer 
of  my  life  a  gourd  has  climbed  up  around  me,  as  proud  as  thou  art, 
and  as  short-lived  as  thou  wilt  be  !  " 


FIGURES   OF  SPEECH  449 

10.  Every  man  has  in  himself  a  continent  of  undiscovered  char- 
acter.     Happy  is  he  who  acts  the  Columbus  to  his  own  soul  1 

Stephen. 

11.  Green  be  the  turf  above  thee, 

Friend  of  my  better  days. 

None  knew  thee  but  to  love  thee, 

None  named  thee  but  to  praise.  —  Halleck. 

12.  Really,  Mr.  President,  I  am  delighted  with  the  honorable 
gentleman's  mode  of  speaking  extempore.  I  like  his  speeches  a 
great  deal  better  without  his  notes  than  with  them.  He  has  this 
day  thrown  all  ancient  and  modern  orators  into  the  shade. 

13.  Every  young  man  is  now  a  sower  of  seed  on  the  field  of  life. 
These  bright  days  of  youth  are  the  seed-time.  Every  thought  of 
your  intellect,  every  emotion  of  your  heart,  every  word  of  your 
tongue,  every  principle  you  adopt,  every  act  you  perform,  is  a  seed 
whose  good  or  evil  fruit  will  be  the  bliss  or  bane  of  your  after  life. 

Wise. 

14.  The  many  make  the  household. 
But  only  one  the  home.  —  Lowell. 

15.  And  the  nations,  rising  up,  their  sorry 
And  foolish  sins  shall  put  away. 

As  children  their  toys  when  the  teacher  enters. 

Mrs.  Browning. 

16.  And  thrice  the  Saxon  blade  drank  blood.  —  Scott. 

17.  What  I  spent  I  had ; 
What  I  kept  I  lost ; 

What  I  gave  I  have.  — Old  Epitaph. 

18.  He  raised  a  mortal  to  the  skies  ; 
She  drew  an  angel  down.  —  Dryden. 

19.  From  peak  to  peak,  the  rattling  crags  among. 
Leaps  the  live  thunder.  —  Byron. 

20.  Knowledge  is  proud  that  he  has  learned  so  much  ; 
Wisdom  is  humble  that  he  knows  no  more.  —  Cowper. 


450  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

21.  Like  the  baseless  fabric  of  this  vision, 

The  cloud-capt  towers,  the  gorgeous  palaces, 
The  solemn  temples,  the  great  globe  itself. 
With  all  that  it  inherits,  shall  dissolve. 
And  like  this  unsubstantial  pageant  faded. 
Leave  not  a  rack  behind.  —  Shakespeare. 

22.  The  south  wind  searches  for  the  flowers 
Whose  fragrance  late  he  bore ; 

And  sighs  to  find  them  in  the  wood 
And  by  the  stream  no  more  —  Bryant. 

23.  A  great  many  children  get  on  the  wrong  track  because  the 
switch  is  misplaced. 

24.  He  worked  hard  to  keep  the  wolf  from  the  door. 

25.  I  found  her  on  the  floor, 

In  all  the  storm  of  grief,  yet  beautiful. 

Pouring  forth  tears  at  such  a  lavish  rate, 

That  were  the  world  on  fire,  they  might  have  drowned 

The  wrath  of  heaven,  and  quenched  the  mighty  ruin.  —  Lee. 

26.  A  mind  for  thoughts  to  pass  into, 
A  heart  for  loves  to  travel  through, 
Five  senses  to  detect  things  near, — 

Is  this  the  whole  that  we  are  here?  —  Clough. 

27.  Some  are  too  foolish  to  commit  follies. 

28.  Ye  crags  and  peaks,  I'm  with  you  once  again  !  — Knowles. 

29.  And  like  the  wings  of  sea-birds 

Flash  the  white-caps  of  the  sea.  — Longfellow. 

30.  No  pain,  no  palm;  no  thorns,  no  throne  ;  no  gall,  no  glory; 
no  cross,  no  crown.  —  William  Penn. 

31.  Here,  where  a  hero  fell,  a  column  falls ! 
Here,  where  the  eagle  glared  in  gold, 

A  midnight  vigil  holds  the  swarthy  bat! — Poe. 

32.  Give  me  liberty,  or  give  me  death!  — Patrick  Henry. 


FIGURES   OF  SPEECH  451 

33.  Let  not  Ambition  mock  their  useful  toil, 
Their  homely  joys,  and  destiny  obscure ; 
Nor  Grandeur  hear  witli  a  disdainful  smile 

The  short  and  simple  annals  of  the  poor. — Gray. 

34.  Gavest  thou  the  goodly  wings  unto  the  peacocks  ?  or  wings 
and  feathers  unto  the  ostrich? — Job  xxxix,  13. 

35.  To  see  Niagara,  you  buy  eleven  silk  dresses  for  your  wife,  and 
six  shirts  for  yourself.  You  then  get  all  the  ready  money  you 
have,  borrow  all  your  friends  have,  and  make  arrangements  for 
unlimited  credit  at  two  or  three  good  solvent  banks.  You  then 
take  six  trunks,  some  more  money,  a  nurse,  a  colored  servant,  some 
more  money,  and  then,  after  getting  some  more  money  and  extend- 
ing your  credit  at  one  or  two  strong  banks  besides,  you  set  out. 
It  is  better,  if  possible,  just  before  you  start,  to  mortgage  your 
homestead,  and  get  some  more  money. 

36.  Glory  is  like  a  circle  in  the  water  * 
Which  never  ceaseth  to  enlarge  itself 

Till  by  broad  spreading  it  disperse  to  naught.  —  Shakespeare. 

37.  Wit  is  a  dangerous  weapon.  —  Montaigne. 

38.  Experience  is  a  hard  teacher. 

39.  The  suflBciency  of  my  merit  is  to  know  that  my  merit  is  not 
sufficient.  —  St.  Augustine. 

40.  .  .  .  When  twilight  on  her  virginal  throat 

Wears  for  a  gem  the  tremulous  vesper  star. —  Haynb. 

41.  Her  commerce  whitens  every  sea. 

42.  There  were  tones  in  the  voice  that  whispered  then 
You  may  hear  to-day  in  a  hundred  men.  —  Holmes. 

43.  Leaves  have  their  time  to  fall, 

And  flowers  to  wither  at  the  north  wind's  breath, 

And  stars  to  set  —  but  all. 

Thou  hast  all  seasons  for  thine  own,  O  Death !  —  Mrs.  Hemans. 


452  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

44.  A  humming-bird  met  a  butterfly,  and  being  pleased  with  the 
beauty  of  his  person  and  the  glory  of  his  wings,  made  an  offer  of 
perpetual  friendship. 

"  I  cannot  think  of  it,"  was  the  reply,  "  as  you  once  spurned  me 
and  called  me  a  drawling  dolt." 

"Impossible!"  exclaimed  the  humming-bird.  "I  always  had 
the  highest  respect  for  such  beautiful  creatures  as  you." 

"  Perhaps  you  have  now,"  said  the  other ;  "  but  when  you  insulted 
me,  I  was  a  caterpillar.  So  let  me  give  you  a  piece  of  advice. 
Never  insult  the  humble,  as  they  may  some  day  become  your 
superiors." 

45.  Presence  of  mind  is  greatly  promoted  by  absence  of  body. 

46.  The  voices  of  the  Present  say  "  Come !  "  But  the  voices  of 
the  Past  say  "  Wait !  "  —  Longfellow. 

47.  A  year  has  gone,  as  the  tortoise  goes, 
Heavy  and  slow.  —  Whittier. 

48.  These  principles  form  the  bright  constellation  which  has 
gone  before  us  and  guided  our  steps  through  an  age  of  revolution 
and  reformation.  —  Thos.  Jefferson. 

49.  How  sweet  it  was  to  draw  near  my  own  home  after  living 
homeless  in  the  world  so  long! — Hawthorne. 

50.  Weariness 

Can  snore  upon  the  flint,  when  resty  sloth 
Finds  the  down-pillow  hard.  —  Shakespeare. 

51.  Hush,  sweetest  South !  I  love  thy  delicate  breath  ; 
But  hush  !  methought  I  felt  an  angel's  kiss ! 

Oh  !  all  that  lives  is  happy  in  my  bliss.  —  Henry  Timrod. 

52.  Sweet  are  the  uses  of  adversity. 
Which, like  the  toad,  ugly  and  venomous, 

AYears  yet  a  precious  jewel  in  his  head.  —  Shakespeare. 

53.  I  talk,  half  the  time,  to  find  out  my  own  thoughts,  as  a 
schoolboy  turns  his  pockets  inside  out  to  see  what  is  in  them. 

Holmes. 


FIGURES   OF  SPEECH  453 

54.  Thy  word  is  a  lamp  unto  my  feet,  and  a  light  unto  my  path. 

Psalm  cxix,  105. 

55.  We  have  complained ;  we  have  petitioned ;  we  have  entreated ; 
we  have  supplicated ;  we  have  even  prostrated  ourselves  at  the  foot 
of  the  tlirone,  without  moving  royal  clemency. 

56.  Ere  long  he  reached  the  magnificent  glacier  of  the  Rhone ;  a 
frozen  cataract  more  than  two  thousand  feet  in  height,  and  many 
miles  broad  at  its  base.  It  fills  the  whole  valley  between  two 
mountains,  running  back  to  their  summits.  At  the  base  it  is  arched, 
like  a  dome,  and  above,  jagged  and  rough,  and  resembles  a  mass  of 
gigantic  crystals  of  a  pale  emerald  tint,  mingled  with  white.  A 
snowy  crust  covers  its  surface ;  but  at  every  rent  and  crevice  the 
pale-green  ice  shines  clear  in  the  sun.  Its  shape  is  that  of  a  glove, 
lying  with  the  palm  downwards,  and  the  fingers  crooked  and  close 
together.  It  is  a  gauntlet  of  ice,  which,  centuries  ago,  Winter,  the 
king  of  these  mountains,  threw  down  in  defiance  to  the  Sun ;  and 
year  by  year  the  Sun  strives  in  vain  to  lift  it  from  the  ground  on 
the  point  of  his  glittering  spear.  —  Longfellow. 

57.  I  have  seen 

A  curious  child,  who  dwelt  upon  a  tract 

Of  inland  ground,  applying  to  his  ear 

The  convolutions  of  a  smooth-lipped  shell, 

To  which,  in  silence  hushed,  his  very  soul 

Listened  intensely  :  and  his  countenance  soon 

Brightened  with  joy;  for,  murmuring  from  within. 

Were  heard  sonorous  cadences,  whereby. 

To  his  belief  the  monitor  expressed 

Mysterious  union  with  its  native  sea. 

Even  such  a  shell  the  universe  itself 

Is  to  the  ear  of  Faith.  —  Wordsworth. 

58.  How  poor,  how  rich,  how  abject,  how  august, 
How  complicate,  how  wonderful  is  man  ! 

How  passing  wonder  He  who  made  him  such  !  — Young. 

59.  Oh  for  a  lodge  in  some  vast  wilderness  !  —  Cowpbk. 


454  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

60.  The  wind  grumbled  and  made  itself  miserable  all  last  night, 
and  this  morning  it  is  still  howling  as  ill-naturedly  as  ever,  and 
roaring  and  rumbling  in  the  chimneys. —  PIawthorne. 

61.  Oh  !  a  wonderful  stream  is  the  river  Time. — Taylor. 

62.  Nobody  knew  how  the  fisherman  brown, 
With  a  look  of  despair  that  was  half  a  frown. 
Faced  his  fate  on  that  furious  night. 

Faced  the  mad  billows  with  hunger  white. 
Just  within  hail  of  a  beacon  light 
That  shone  on  a  woman  fair  and  trim, 
Waiting  for  him.  —  Lucy  Larcom. 

63.  And  the  cares  that  infest  the  day 
Shall  fold  their  tents  like  the  Arabs, 
And  as  silently  steal  away.  —  Longfellow. 

64.  Our  fathers'  God  !  from  out  whose  hand 
The  centuries  fall  like  grains  of  sand, 
We  meet  to-day,  united,  free. 

And  loyal  to  our  land  and  Thee, 
To  thank  Thee  for  the  era  done. 
And  trust  Thee  for  the  opening  one.  —  Whittier. 

65.  Were  I  Midas,  I  would  make  nothing  else  but  just  such 
golden  days  as  these,  over  and  over  again,  all  the  year  throughout. 
My  best  thoughts  always  come  a  little  too  late.  Why  did  I  not  tell 
you  how  old  King  Midas  came  to  America  and  changed  the  dusky 
autumn,  such  as  it  is  in  other  countries,  into  the  burnished  beauty 
which  it  here  puts  on  ?  He  gilded  the  leaves  of  the  great  volume 
of  N'ature. —  Hawthorne. 

66.  Regular  as  pulse's  rise  and  fall 

Boomed  the  long  echo  of  the  breaking  seas. 

67.  Live  well  —  Die  never  ; 

Die  well  —  Live  forever.  —  Old  Epitaph. 

68.  I  remember,  I  remember. 
How  my  childhood  fleeted  by ; 
The  mirth  of  its  December, 

And  the  warmth  of  its  July.  —  Hood. 


FIGURES    OF  SPEECH  455 

69.  O  wad  some  power  tlie  giliie  gie  us, 

To  see  oursels  as  ithers  see  us  !  —  Burns. 

70.  Everything  came  to  him  marked  by  Nature,  Right  side  up 
with  care,  and  he  kept  it  so.  The  world  to  him,  as  to  all  of  us,  was 
like  a  medal,  on  the  obverse  of  which  is  stamped  the  image  of  Joy, 

and  on  the  reverse  that  of  Care.     S never  took  the  foolish  j)aiiis 

to  look  at  that  other  side,  even  if  he  knew  of  its  existence.  —  Lowell. 

71.  A  wise  man  is  never  less  alone  than  when  he  is  alone. 

72.  Put  not  your  trust  in  money,  but  put  your  money  in  trust. 

Holmes. 

73.  He  stood  firm  at  his  post. 

74.  Like  a  spear  of  flame  the  cardinal  flower 
Burned  out  along  the  meadow.  —  Eddv. 

75.  Time  is  the  warp  of  life. 

Oh,  tell  the  young,  the  gay,  the  fair, 
To  weave  it  well  !  —  Marsden. 

76s    So  my  butterfly-dreams  their  golden  wings 

But  seldom  unfurl  from  their  chrysalis.  —  Henry  Timrod. 

77.  Quoth  David  to  Daniel,  "  Why  is  it  these  scholars 
Abuse  one  another  whenever  they  speak  ?  " 
Quoth  Daniel  to  David,  "  It  nat-rally  follers 

Folks  come  to  hard  words  if  they  meddle  with  Greek  !  " 

Saxe. 

78.  In  '93,  he  landed  in  Boston,  then  the  front-door  of  America. 

Lowell. 

79.  Who  shall  be  the  heralds  of  this  coming  day?  Who  shall 
thread  the  way  of  honor  and  safety  through  these  besetting  prob- 
lems? You,  my  countrymen,  you!  The  university  is  the  training 
camp  of  the  future.  The  scholar,  the  champion  of  the  coming  years. 
Napoleon  oveiTan  Europe  with  drum-tap  and  bivouac ;  the  next 
Napoleon  shall  form  his  battalions  at  the  tap  of  the  schoolhouse 
bell,  and  his  captains  shall  come  with  cap  and  gown.  Waterloo  was 
won  at  Oxford  ;  Sedan  at  Berlin.  —  Henry  W.  Grady. 


456  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

80.  Law  is  like  a  contra-dance  :  people  are  led  up  and  down  in 
it  until  they  are  tired.  Law  is  like  a  book  of  surgery :  there  are  a 
great  many  desperate  cases  in  it.  Law  is  like  physic :  they  that 
take  the  least  of  it  are  the  best  off.  Law  is  like  a  new  fashion  : 
people  are  bewitched  to  get  into  it.  Law  is  like  bad  weather :  most 
people  are  glad  when  they  get  out  of  it.  Law  is  law:  and  is  in 
such  and  so  forth,  hereby  and  whereby,  and  aforesaid,  provided 
always,  nevertheless,  notwithstanding,  wherefore,  whichsoever,  and 
whereas. 

81.  How  sleep  the  brave  who  sink  to  rest 
By  all  their  country's  wishes  blest ! 


By  fairy  hands  their  knell  is  rung  ; 

By  forms  unseen  their  dirge  is  sung ; 

There  Honor  comes,  a  pilgrim  gray. 

To  bless  the  turf  that  wraps  their  clay  ; 

And  Freedom  shall  awhile  repair. 

To  dwell  a  weeping  hermit  there.  —  Collins. 

82.  Like  the  leaves  of  the  forest  when  summer  is  green, 
That  host  with  their  banners  at  sunset  were  seen  ; 
Like  the  leaves  of  the  forest  when  autumn  hath  blown, 
That  host  on  the  morrow  lay  withered  and  strown.  —  Byron. 

83.  Contentment  is  a  pearl  of  great  price.  — Balguy. 

84.  The  temperate  are  the  most  truly  luxurious. 

85.  Better  a  death  when  work  is  done,  than  earth's  most  favored 

birth; 
Better  a  child  in  God's  great  house,  than  the  king  of  all  the 
earth  !  —  Macdonald. 

86.  Sweet  day,  so  cool,  so  calm,  so  bright, 
The  bridal  of  the  earth  and  sky. 
The  dews  shall  weep  thy  fall  to-night, 
For  thou  must  die.  —  Herbert. 


FIGURES   OF  SPEECH  457 

87.  Our  very  hopes  belied  our  fears, 
Our  fears  our  liopes  belied ; 

We  thought  her  dying  when  she  slept, 
And  sleeping  when  she  died.  —  Hood. 

88.  In  the  sweat  of  thy  face  shalt  thou  eat  bread,  till  thou 
return  unto  the  ground  ;  for  out  of  it  wast  thou  taken  :  for  dust 
thou  art,  and  unto  dust  shalt  thou  return.  —  Genesis  iii,  19. 

89.  He  may  live  without  books,  —  what  is  knowledge  but  grieving  ? 
He  may  live  without  hojie,  —  what  is  hope  but  deceiving? 
He  may  live  without  love,  —  what  is  passion  but  pining? 
But  where  is  the  man  who  can  live  without  dining  ? 

Owen  Meredith. 

90.  The  inventions  of  paper  and  the  press  have  put  an  end  to 
all  these  restraints ;  they  have  made  every  one  a  writer,  and  enabled 
every  mind  to  pour  itself  into  print,  and  diffuse  itself  over  the  whole 
intellectual  world.  The  consequences  are  alarming.  The  stream 
of  literature  has  swollen  into  a  torrent,  augmented  into  a  river, 
expanded  into  a  sea.  —  Irving. 

91.  Life,  we  've  been  long  together. 

Through  pleasant  and  through  cloudy  weather. 

'T  is  hard  to  part  when  friends  are  dear ; 

Perhaps  't  will  cost  a  sigh,  a  tear ; 

Then  steal  away,  give  little  warning; 

Choose  thine  own  time  ; 

Say  not  "  good-night," 

But  in  some  brighter  clime 

Bid  me  "  good-morning  !  "  —  Mrs.  Barbauld. 

92.  The  Night  is  mother  of  the  Day, 
The  Winter  of  the  Spring, 

And  ever  upon  old  Decay 

The  greenest  mosses  cling. 

Behind  the  cloud  the  starlight  lurks, 

Through  showers  the  sunbeams  fall; 

For  God,  who  loveth  all  his  works, 

Has  left  his  Hope  with  all !  —  Whittibb, 


458  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

93.  I  see  the  pyramids  building;  I  hear  the  shoutings  of  the 
army  of  Alexander ;  I  feel  the  ground  shake  beneath  the  march  of 
Cambyses.  I  sit  as  in  a  theatre,  —  the  stage  is  time,  the  play  is  the 
world.  —  Alex.  Smith. 

94.  There  were  two  or  three  pretty  faces  among  the  female 
singers,  to  which  the  keen  air  of  a  frosty  morning  had  given  a 
bright  rosy  tint :  but  the  gentlemen  choristers  had  evidently  been 
chosen,  like  old  Cremona  fiddles,  more  for  tone  than  looks ;  and  as 
several  had  to  sing  from  the  same  book,  there  were  clusterings 
of  odd  physiognomies,  not  unlike  those  groups  of  cherubs  we 
sometimes  see  on  country  tombstones.  —  Irving. 

95.  Others  shall  sing  the  song, 
Others  shall  right  the  wrong. 
Finish  what  I  begin, 

And  all  I  fail  of  win. 

What  matter,  I  or  they  ? 

Mine  or  another's  day. 

So  the  right  word  be  said 

And  life  the  sweeter  made  ?  —  Whittier. 

96.  Breathes  there  the  man  with  soul  so  dead. 
Who  never  to  himself  hath  said. 

This  is  my  own,  my  native  land  ? 

Whose  heart  hath  ne'er  within  him  burn'd. 

As  home  his  footsteps  he  hath  turn'd  ?  —  Scott. 

97.  O  summer  day  beside  the  joyous  sea ! 
O  summer  day  so  wonderful  and  white, 
So  full  of  gladness  and  so  full  of  pain ! 
Forever  and  forever  shalt  thou  be 

To  some  the  gravestone  of  a  dead  delight, 

To  some  the  landmark  of  a  new  domain. — Longfellow. 

98.  The  reader  must  not,  from  any  testimony  of  mine,  contract 
a  dislike  toward  our  slumberous  stream.  In  the  light  of  a  calm  and 
golden  sunset  it  becomes  lovely  beyond  expression ;  the  more  lovely 


FIGURES   OF  SPEECH  459 

for  the  quietude  that  so  well  accords  with  the  hour,  when  even  the 
wind,  after  blustering  all  day,  usually  hushes  itself  to  rest.  Each 
tree  and  rock,  and  every  blade  of  grass,  is  distinctly  imaged,  and 
however  unsightly  in  reality,  assumes  ideal  beauty  in  the  reflection. 
.  .  .  All  the  sky  glows  downward  at  our  feet ;  the  rich  clouds  float 
through  the  unruffled  bosom  of  the  stream  like  heavenly  thoughts 
through  a  peaceful  heart.  We  will  not,  then,  malign  our  river  as 
gross  and  impure  while  it  can  glorify  itself  with  so  adequate  a 
picture  of  the  heaven  that  broods  above  it ;  or,  if  we  remember  its 
tawny  hue  and  the  muddiness  of  its  bed,  let  it  be  a  symbol  that  the 
earthliest  human  soul  has  an  infinite  spiritual  capacity  and  may 
contain  the  better  world  within  its  depths. — Hawthorne. 

99.  "  No  more  !  "  Oh,  how  majestically  mournful  are  those 
words  !  They  sound  like  the  roar  of  the  wind  through  a  forest 
of  pines. — Longfellow. 

100.  Life  is  a  leaf  of  paper  white. 
Whereon  each  one  of  us  may  write 

His  word  or  two,  and  then  comes  night.  —  Lowell. 

101.  When  can  their  glory  fade? 
Oh,  the  wild  charge  they  made  1 
All  the  world  wondered. 
Honor  the  charge  they  made  ! 
Honor  the  Light  Brigade,  — 
Noble  six  hundred  !  —  Tennyson. 

102.  He  who  thinks  his  place  below  him  will  certainly  be  below 
his  place.  —  Saville. 

103.  A  day  —  an  hour  —  of  virtuous  liberty  is  worth  a  whole 
eternity  in  bondage. 

104.  It  will  bring  his  gray  hairs  with  sorrow  to  the  grave. 

105.  Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  shall  rise  again ; 
The  eternal  years  of  God  are  hers  : 

But  Error,  wounded,  writhes  with  piain. 
And  dies  among  her  worshipers.  —  Bryant. 


460  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

106.  My  own  self-pity,  like  the  redbreast  bird, 
Flies  back  to  cover  all  that  past  with  leaves. 

Mrs.  Bkowning. 

107.  Maiden,  that  read'st  this  simple  rhyme, 

Enjoy  thy  youth,  it  will  not  stay ; 
Enjoy  the  fragrance  of  thy  prime. 
For  oh,  it  is  not  always  May  ! 

Enjoy  the  Spring  of  Love  and  Youth, 

To  some  good  angel  leave  the  rest ; 

For  Time  will  teach  thee  soon  the  truth. 

There  are  no  birds  in  last  year's  nest  !  —  Longfellow. 

108.  Recollect  that  while  dwelling  with  the  fond  garrulity  of 
age  over  these  fairy  scenes,  endeared  to  thee  by  the  recollections 
of  thy  youth,  and  the  charms  of  a  thousand  legendary  tales  which 
beguiled  the  simple  ear  of  thy  childhood  ;  recollect  that  thou  art 
trifling  with  those  fleeting  moments  which  should  be  devoted  to 
loftier  things.  Is  not  Time  —  relentless  Time  —  shaking,  with 
palsied  hand,  his  almost  exhausted  hour-glass  before  thee?  —  Irving. 

109.  The  poetry  of  Milton  diifers  from  that  of  Dante  as  the 
hieroglyphics  of  Egypt  differ  from  the  picture-writing  of  Mexico. .  .  . 
The  character  of  Milton  was  peculiarly  distinguished  by  loftiness  of 
spirit ;  that  of  Dante  by  intensity  of  feeling.  —  Macaulay. 

110.  Vice  shuddered  in  his  presence,  and  virtue  always  felt  his 
frosting  hand.  —  R.   H.  Lee. 

111.  They  have  Moses  and  the  prophets ;  let  them  hear  them. 

Luke  xvi,  29. 

112.  Ring  out  the  thousand  wars  of  old, 

Ring  in  the  thousand  years  of  peace.  —  Tennyson. 

113.  Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  give  my  hand 
and  heart  to  this  vote.  —  Webster. 

114.  Marbles  forget  their  message  to  mankind.  —  Holmes. 

115.  Who  does  not  know  the  tale  as  told  in  the  magic  page  of 
Shakespeare  ?  —  Irving. 


FIGURES   OF  SPEECH  461 

116.  Two  of  the  fairest  stars  in  all  the  heaven, 
Having  some  business,  do  entreat  her  eyes 
To  twinkle  in  their  spheres  till  they  return. 
What  if  her  eyes  were  there,  they  in  her  head. 

The  brightness  of  her  cheek  would  shame  those  stars, 
As  daylight  doth  a  lamp ;  her  eye  in  heaven 
Would  through  tlie  airy  region  stream  so  bright, 
That  birds  would  sing,  and  think  it  were  not  night. 

Shakespeare. 

117.  Sceptre  and  crown 

Must  tumble  down, 

And  in  the  dust  be  equal  made 

With  the  poor  crooked  scythe  and  spade Shirley. 

118.  As  he  walked,  his  eyes  were  on  the  ground. 

119.  His  death,  which  happened  in  his  berth. 
At  forty-odd  befell ; 

They  went  and  told  the  sexton,  and 
The  sexton  tolled  the  bell.  —  Hood. 

120.  All  is  not  gold  that  glitters. 

121.  I  speak  within  bounds  when  I  say  that  the  British  traveler 
is  not  exceptionally  noted,  in  any  part  of  the  world,  for  the  gentle 
humility  with  which  he  submits  to  the  extortions  and  other  dis- 
agreeable things  incident  to  a  tourist's  life. 

122.  And  it  bubbles  and  seethes,  and  it  hisses  and  roars. 
As  when  fire  is  with  water  commix'd  and  contending. 
And  the  spray  of  its  wrath  to  the  welkin  upsoars. 
And  flood  upon  flood  hurries  on,  never  ending. 

[Description  of  a  whirlpool.]  —  Schillbk. 

123.  Better  not  be  at  all 

Than  not  be  noble.  — Tennyson. 

124.  Alas  1  for  the  rarity 
Of  Christian  charity 
Under  the  sun  I  —  Hood. 


462  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

125.  They  are  poor 

That  have  lost  nothing  :  they  are  poorer  far 
Who,  losing,  have  forgotten  :  they  most  poor 
Of  all,  who  lose  and  wish  they  might  forget. 

Jean  Ingelow. 

126.  The  night  is  calm  and  cloudless. 

And  still  as  still  can  be, 

And  the  stars  come  forth  to  listen 

To  the  music  of  the  sea. 

They  gather  and  gather  and  gather, 

Until  they  crowd  the  sky. 

And  listen,  in  breathless  silence. 

To  the  solemn  litany.  — Longfellow. 

127.  Why  is  dust  and  ashes  proud  ? 

128.  Books  are  the  legacies  that  genius  leaves  to  mankind. 

129.  Leafless  are  the  trees ;  their  piu-ple  branches 
Spread  themselves  abroad,  like  reefs  of  coral. 

Rising  silent 
In  the  Red  Sea  of  the  winter  sunset.  —  Longfellow. 

130.  Like  warp  and  woof  all  destinies 

Are  woven  fast. 
Linked  in  sympathy  like  the  keys 
Of  an  organ  vast. 

Pluck  one  thread,  and  the  web  ye  mar ; 

Break  but  one 
Of  a  thousand  keys,  and  the  paining  jar 
Through  all  will  run.  —  Whittier. 

131.  A  Streamlet  started  forth  from  a  spring  in  the  side  of  a 
mountain,  and,  after  an  infancy  of  gay  leaps  in  bright  cascades, 
spread  out  into  a  more  quiet  and  steady  movement.  It  began  then 
to  dream  and  meditate  on  the  object  for  which  it  existed.  While 
in  this  grave  mood  a  Will-o'-wisp  darted  out  and  danced  over  its 
waters. 

"  Ah  !  "  cried  the  Streamlet ;  "  this  is  a  heavenly  light  sent  to  tell 
me  what  I  wish  to  know,  and  to  guide  my  course." 


FIGURES    OF  SPEECH  403 

But  the  Will-o'-wisp  soon  flitted  away  and  vanished,  leaving  the 
Streamlet  more  perplexed  than  before.  Its  first  creed  was  gone. 
Then  a  rosy  cloud  floated  in  the  sky  and  mirrored  itself  in  the  bosom 
of  the  Stream. 

"  This,"  it  cried,  "  is  a  token  of  Paradise  !  " 

But  a  wind  ruffled  the  water,  and  the  tinted  cloud  was  mirrored 
no  more ;  and  when  the  Streamlet  became  still  again,  the  rosy  cloud 
had  passed  from  the  sky.  Then  a  water-lily  expanded  on  its 
waves. 

"  Behold  ! "  said  the  Streamlet ;  "  to  nourish  this  beauty  is  the 
end  and  aim  of  my  life." 

But  the  lily  presently  folded  up  and  perished.  The  Streamlet 
moved  on.  Presently  it  came  to  a  spot  where  men  had  thrown  hard 
stones  in  its  way,  obstructed  its  course,  turned  it  aside  through  a 
narrow  channel  and  forced  it  to  rush  in  a  confused  perilous  way 
over  a  wheel. 

«  Alas  ! "  cried  the  Streamlet ;  "  is  it  then  for  this  agony  I  was 
born  ?  " 

But  after  some  wild  splashes  the  Streamlet  found  itself  at  peace 
again  and  went  on  widening.  And  now  a  glorious  moon  came  out 
and  showered  gold  all  over  it. 

"  How  wealthy  I  am  ! "  cried  the  Streamlet. 

The  moon  waned.  But  the  stars  came  out,  and  the  ripples  caught 
them  as  bright  marvels ;  they  hinted  deeper,  steadier  glories  yet  to 
be  revealed.     But  the  stars  set. 

At  length  a  Poet  reclined  on  its  bank  and  sang  to  it: 

"  Sweet  Streamlet !  What  a  bright  life  must  have  been  yours  ! 
What  flowers  must  have  fringed  your  gliding  way,  what  rosy  clouds 
you  have  reflected,  what  lilies  you  have  nourished,  what  stars  have 
risen  to  tell  you  their  secrets  ere  they  have  set !  You  have  done 
brave  work,  too.  You  have  watered  the  meadow  and  made  it  wave 
with  grain  ;  you  have  conspired  with  the  sun  to  ripen  the  harvest, 
and  when  matured  you  have  helped  to  turn  it  into  bread.  Not  for 
any  one  of  these  joys  and  uses  were  you  made,  but  for  all  !  So  may 
the  stream  of  my  life  run  on,  with  varied  happiness  and  helpfulness, 
not  anxious  about  the  unknown  Sea  to  which  thou  and  I,  fair 
Stream,  are  tending." 


464  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

As  the  Streamlet  listened,  all  the  beauties  it  had  known  shone 
out  again,  and  they  all  clustered  — dancing  light,  rosy  cloud, 
golden  moon,  and  serene  stars  —  around  the  great  sorrow  it  had 
encountered,  the  obstruction  which  had  ground  grain  for  man  ;  for 
that,  transfigured  in  the  Poet's  song,  seemed  the  happiest  experience 
of  all.  MoNCURE  D.  Conway. 

From  St.  Nicholas.    By  permission  Century  Publishing  Company. 

SUMMARY 

320.  Figures  of  speech  are  variations  from  the  literal  or 
ordinary  forms  of  expression  to  a  more  attractive  or  more 
striking  form.  The  chief  use  of  figures  is  to  make  the 
thought  clearer  or  more  pleasing. 

The  figures  based  on  resemblances  are  simile,  metaphor, 
allegory,  and  personification. 

The  figures  based  on  contrast  are  antithesis  and  epi- 
gram. 

The  figures  based  on  other  relations  are  metonymy, 
synecdoche,  apostrophe,  exclamation,  interrogation,  hyper- 
bole, climax,  and  irony. 

Less  important  figures  are  vision,  euphemism,  onomato- 
poeia, litotes,  parallel,  allusion,  and  alliteration. 


INDEX 


The  references  are  to  pages 


Abbreviations  :  in  dictionary,  339 ; 
punctuation  of,  53. 

Accents  :  in  poetry,  336. 

Adjective  clause  :  39. 

Adjectives :  comparison,  28  ff.  ; 
definition,  6 ;  kinds  —  articles, 
descriptive,  demonstrative,  dis- 
tributive, numeral,  pronominal, 
proper,  6. 

Adverbs  :  definition,  8  ;  kinds  — 
degree,  manner,  place,  and  time, 
8. 

Allegory  :  394,  433. 

Alliteration  :  448. 

Allusion  :  447. 

Ambiguity  :  321. 

Amphibrach  :  419. 

Amplifying  paragraphs  :  263  ff. 

Anapest:  419. 

Anecdotes :  form  of  narration,  122, 
124,  357;  in  autobiography,  355. 

Anglo-Saxon  words  :  322  ff. 

Anticlimax  :  405,  443. 

Antithesis:  436. 

Apostrophe  :  figure  of  speech,  439 ; 
mark  of  punctuation,  16  ff.,  74. 

Appositives :  15,  16. 

Articles  :  definite,  6 ;  indefinite,  6. 

Artistic  novel :  396. 

Attribute  of  sentence  :  3. 

Autobiography :  354. 


Balanced  sentences  :  272,  273. 

Ballads:  417. 

Barbarisms  :  302  ff. 

Beauty  :  quality  of  style,  420. 

Biographies  :  definition,  354  ;  es- 
sentials, 354. 

Book  reviews  :  methods,  382  ff. ; 
object,  382  ;  value,  382. 

Books  of  reference  :  183  ff. 

Brackets  :  use  of,  73. 

Caesura!  pause :  417. 
Capitalization  :  general  rules,  47  ; 

special  rules,  47  ff. 
Caricatures :  349  ff. 
Case:     definition,     15;     kmds  — 

nominative,  objective,  possessive, 

15  ff. 
Catastrophe :    of  drama,   405 ;    of 

"Macbeth,"  407. 
Cause  :  clause  of,  39. 
Classical  dictionaries :  184. 
Classical  words  :  324. 
Clauses  :  definition,  37  ;  kinds  of, 

38  ff. 
Climax :  of  drama,  405 ;  figure  of 

speech,  443  ;  of  "  Macbeth,"  407. 
Coherence  :  in  paragraph,  229  ff.  ; 

in  sentence,  283  ff.  ;  in  theme, 

212  ff. 
Colon  :  rules  for,  64  ff. 


465 


466 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


Comedy :    first    English,    403   ff.  ; 

nature  of,  404. 
Commas  :  rules  for,  53  ff. 
Comparison :  degrees  of,  28  ;  facts 

about,  29. 
Complicating    forces :    in    drama, 

405. 
Concluding  paragraphs  :  261  ff. 
Conclusion  :  of  a  syllogism,  376. 
Conjunctions  :  definition,  9  ;  classes 

of,  9. 
Consonants :  335  ff. 
Construction  :  definition,  3  ;  noun 

constructions,  15. 
Conversation  :  see  Dialogue. 
Critic :  function  of,  364. 
Current  literature:   where  found, 

185. 

Dactyl :  419. 

Dash  :  rules  for,  70  ff. 

Debates  :  methods  of  reasoning  in, 

376  ;  outline,  377  ff.  ;  scope,  375  ; 

subjects,  375  ff. 
Deductive  reasoning :  376. 
Degree  :  adverb  of,  8  ;  clause  of,  39. 
Derivation  of  words  :  338. 
Description :      for        impressions, 

159  ff.  ;  from  observation,  111  ff.  ; 

in  novel,  398  ;  kinds  of,  346  ff.  ; 

nature  of,  345  ;  of  objects.  111  ff.  ; 

of   persons,   118  ff.  ;   of  places, 

114  ff.  ;    related  paragraphs  in, 

111  ff.,  265  ff. 
Dialogue :  uses,  398 ;  in  narration, 

172,  174,  175 ;  in  novels,  398 ;  in 

"Silas  Marner,"  401. 
Diaries :  358. 
Diction :  definition,  302  ;  qualities 

of,  302  ff. 


Dictionaries :  features  of,  333  ff.  ; 
importance,  333  ;  of  fictitious 
persons  and  places,  339;  pro- 
nouncing biographical,  184,  339  ; 
other  special  dictionaries,  184, 
185,  333. 

Digraphs  :  335,  336. 

Diphthongs :  335,  336. 

Drama  :  classical,  404, 405  ;  climax 
and  catastrophe,  405 ;  modern, 
405,  411  ;  nature  of  comedy, 
404  ;  nature  of  tragedy,  404  ; 
English  drama,  402  ff.  ;  unities, 
405,  411. 


Editorials  :  380  ff. 

Emphasis  :  in  paragraphs,  233  ff.  ; 

in  sentences,  287  ff.  ;  in  themes, 

217  ff. 
Encyclopaedias  :  184,  185. 
Epic  ;  classes,  413  ff. ;  nature,  413. 
Epigram:  437. 
Essay :     formal,     364 ;     informal, 

362. 
EtJiical  novel :  395,  396. 
Etymology  :  307  ff. 
Euphemism  :  446. 
Euphony  :  290. 
Examination    papers :     directions 

for   writing,     98    ff.  ;    value    of 

preparation,  98. 
Exclamation :     figure    of    speech, 

440  ;  mark  of  punctuation,  67. 
Exposition :       in      letter-writing, 

145  ff.  ;   in   travels,    355 ;    kinds, 

362  ff. ;   nature  and  value,  362  ; 

related  paragraphs   in,  267  ;  see 

also    Book    Reviews,    Debates, 

Editorials,  Essays,  and  Speeches. 


INDEX 


467 


Expression  :  of  pupil's  own  thought, 
104  ff.  ;  art  of,  104  ;  essentials, 
104  ff.  ;  see  also  Language  and 
Words. 


Fables :  394. 

Figures  of  speech  :  allegory,  433  ; 
alliteration,  448  ;  allusion,  447  ; 
antithesis,  436  ;  apostrophe,  439 ; 
climax,  443  ;  definition  of,  424 ; 
epigram,  437  ;  euphemism,  440  ; 
exclamation,  440 ;  hyperbole, 
442  ;  interrogation,  441  ;  irony, 
444 ;  litotes,  447  ;  metaphor, 
426  ff.  ;  metonymy,  438,  4.39 ; 
onomatopoeia,  446 ;  parallel, 
447  ;  personification,  435  ;  simile, 
425  ff.  ;  synecdoche,  439  ;  use, 
425 ;  value  of  study  of,  424 ; 
vision,  446. 

Folk-Ules :  394,  409. 

Foot,  poetic  :  definition  of,  418  ; 
kinds  —  amphibrach,  anapest, 
dactyl,  iambus,  spondee,  and 
trochee,  419. 


Gender :   definition,  14 ;  kinds  of, 

14. 
Grammar  :    definition,   3  ;    review 

of,  1-46  ;  value  of,  3. 


Historical  novel :  395. 

Historical  spirit :  353  ff. 

History  :  definition,  353 ;  history 
of  English  language,  334  ;  his- 
tory of  words,  338. 

Hybrids :  304. 

Hymn  :  414. 


Hyperbole  :  442. 
Hyphen  :  use  of,  74. 

Iambus  :  419. 

Idealistic  novel :  395. 

Idiom  :  321. 

Imagination  :  nature  of,  151  ;  gen- 
eral value,  152  ;  value  in  descrip- 
tion, 153 ;  value  in  narration, 
166  ff. 

Imperative  mood :  21. 

Impropriety  in  diction :  definition, 
307. 

Indenting:  81. 

Indicative  mood  :  20. 

Indirect  object :  15. 

Inductive  reasoning :  376. 

Infinitives  :  definition,  22  ;  kinds, 
22. 

Inflection  :  11. 

Interjection :  definition  of,  10. 

Interludes  :  403. 

Interrogation  :  mark  of  punctua- 
tion, QQ  ff. ;  figure  of  speech,  44 1 . 

Introductory  paragraphs  :  261  ff. 

Irony  :  444.  ' 

Language :  definition,  1. 

Lecture :  370  ff. 

Legend:  394,  416. 

Letter-writing :  body  of  letter,  133  ; 
business  letters,  137  ff.  ;  conclu- 
sion, 133  ff. ;  formal  notes,  138  ff. ; 
form  of  narration,  359  ff. ; 
friendly  letters,  140  ff. ;  heading, 
130  ff.  ;  informal  notes,  146  ff.  ; 
introduction,  131  ff.  ;  super- 
scription, 135  ff.  ;  value  of  letter- 
■svriting,  129. 

Library  :  use  of,  182  ff. 


468 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


Literature :    current,  185  ff.  ;  gen- 
eral, 186  ff. 
Litotes:  447. 
Loose  sentences :  273  ff. 
Lyric :  413  ff. ;  nature  of,  413. 


"Macbeth"  as  a  typical  tragedy: 
405  ff. 

Manner:  adverb  of,  8;  clause  of, 
39. 

Margin :  81. 

Marks :  of  pronunciation,.  334 ; 
proof  reader's,  339  ff. ;  punctua- 
tion, 61  ff. ;  quotation,  69  ff. 

Metaphor :  definition,  426 ;  mis- 
takes in,  427  ff. 

Meter :  varieties  of,  419  ;  definition 
of,  418  ;  kinds  of,  418  ff. 

Mood :  definition,  20 ;  imperative, 
21 ;  indicative,  20 ;  potential,  20  ; 
subjunctive,  21. 

Moralities :  403. 


Nouns  :  abstract,  4  ;  collective,  4  ; 
common,  4 ;  changes  in,  12  ff.  ; 
definition,  4  ;  proper,  4  ;  verbal, 
6. 

Novel :  characters,  397 ;  classes, 
395  ;  definition,  394  ;  forms  lead- 
ing to  English  novel,  393  ff.  ; 
importance,  393  ;  plot,  397. 

Novelist's  point  of  view  :  396. 

Number :  definition,  12 ;  kinds,  12. 

Object :  object  of  preposition,  15  ; 
object  of  verb,  15 ;  objective  case, 
11;  predicate  objective,  15. 

Octave :  415. 

Ode:  414. 

Oration  :  familiar  forms,  366  ff.  ; 
material,  372  ;  scope,  365  ;  steps 
in  preparation,  373  ff.  ;  see  also 
Lecture,  Plea,  Sermon,  and 
Speech. 

Outline :  nature,  88 ;  of  debate, 
377,  378  ;  of  oration,  373. 


Narration:  definition,  121;  from 
experience,  121  ff. ;  kinds  of, 
353 ;  imagination  in,  166  ff.  ; 
nature  and  value  of,  352  ff.  ;  re- 
lated paragraphs  in,  266  ;  see  also 
Anecdotes,  Biographies,  Diaries, 
Letter-Writing,  News  Items, 
Short  Stories,  and  Travels. 

News  items :  356  ff. 

Nominative  absolute :  15. 

Nominative  independent :  15. 

Notes :  formal,  138  ff.  ;  informal, 
146  ff. 

Note-taking :  92  ff. 

Noun  clauses :  38. 


Paragraphs  :  amplifying,  263  ff.  ; 
concluding,  262  ff.  ;  definition  of, 
80,  222  ff.  ;  essentials,  224  ff.  ;  in 
letters,  144  ;  introductory,  261  ff. ; 
isolated  paragraph,  240  ff. ;  kinds, 
223  ;  length,  223 ;  related,  261  ff. ; 
transitional,  263. 

Parenthesis  :  use  of,  73. 

Participles  :  definition,  22  ;  kinds 
of,  22. 

Parts  of  speech  :  changes  in,  11  ff.  ; 
classification  of,  4 ;  see  also 
Nouns,  Verbs,  etc. 

Passion  plays  :  403. 

Period  :  rules,  52  ff. 


INDEX 


469 


Periodic  sentences  :  272. 

Person  :  12. 

Personification :  definition,  435 ; 
kinds  of,  435. 

Phrase :  definition,  35  ;  named  from 
form,  35 ;  named  from  use,  30. 

Phraseology  of  sentences  :  292. 

Place  :  adverb  of,  8  ;  clause  of,  39. 

Plea :  366. 

Plot :  definition,  397  ;  essentials, 
397  ;  plot  of  "  Macbeth,"  400  ff. ; 
plot  of  "  Silas  Marner,"  399. 

Plurals  :  formation  of,  13  ff. 

Poetic  forms  :  412  ff. 

Poetry :  classes  of,  413  ;  definition, 
412 ;  see  also  Drama,  Epic,  and 
Lyric. 

Potential  mood  :  20. 

Precision  :  definition,  320  ;  viola- 
tions of,  321. 

Predicate :  2. 

Premise  :  major  and  minor,  376. 

Prepositions  :  definition,  8. 

Pronouns:  definition,  5;  kinds  — 
adjective,  demonstrative,  distrib- 
utive, interrogative,  personal, 
and  relative,  5. 

Pronunciation  :  gazetteer  of,  339  ; 
marks  of,  334. 

Propriety :  definition,  307  ;  means 
of  securing,  308. 

Prose  :  forms,  345  ff. 

Proverbs :  324,  339. 

P*unctuation  :  most  common  marks, 
52  ;  rules  of,  52  ff.  ;  value,  51. 

Quotation  marks  :  rules  for,  69. 

Reading  :  methods  of,  182  ff. 


Realistic  novel :  395. 

Reasoning  :  deductive  and  induc- 
tive, 376. 

Reference  books  :  183  ff. 

Resolving  forces  in  the  drama : 
405. 

Retelling  :  by  condensing,  88  ff.  ; 
by  expanding,  100  ff.  ;  exactly, 
82  ff. 

Review;  of  books,  382  ;  of  gram- 
mar. Iff.;  of  punctuation,  47  ff. 

Revision :  of  oration,  373 ;  of 
theme,  200. 

Romances :  394. 

Romantic  novel :  395. 

Rhyme  :  definition  of,  418. 

Rhyming  scheme  :  415. 

Rhythm  :  418. 

Scansion  :  417. 

Semicolon  :  61  ff. 

Sentence  phraseology  :  292  ff. 

Sentences :  attribute  of,  3 ;  bal- 
anced, 273 ;  definition,  2,  41 ; 
essentials,  279  ff.  ;  introductory, 
251  ;  kinds  from  form,  41  ff.  ; 
kinds  from  use,  42  ;  loose,  273  ; 
nature  and  purpose,  272  ;  peri- 
odic, 272  ;  predicate  of,  2  ;  sub- 
ject of,  2,  15  ;  summarizing,  252; 
transitional,  252  ;  value  of  vari- 
ety, 273. 

Sermon  :  369. 

Sestet:  415. 

Shall :  309  ff. 

Short  story  :  directions  for  telling, 
124 ;  nature  and  value  of,  356 ; 
subject-matter  of,  356. 

Should:  310  ft. 

Simile  :  155,  425  ff. 


470 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


Sketch  :  348. 

Solecisms  :  definition,  307  ;  kinds, 
308  ff. 

Sonnet :  415  ff. 

Specific  words  :  116,  162,  323,  324. 

Speech  :  difference  between  speech 
and  writing,  110;  importance  of 
correct  speech,  109. 

Speeches  :  of  occasion,  385 ;  polit- 
ical, 367. 

Spelling:  338. 

Spondee  :  419. 

Stories  :  see  Short  Story. 

Style  :  qualities  in  poetry,  420 ; 
see  also  Diction, 

Subject :  of  sentence,  2,  15. 

Subject-matter  of  short  stories : 
356. 

Subjunctive  mood  :  21. 

Sublimity  :  420. 

Syllables  :  335  ff. 

Syllogism:  376. 

Synonyms :  320. 

Tense  :  23. 

Theme  :  beginning,  198  ff.  ;  choice 
and  limitation  of  subject,  179  ; 
definition,  179  ;  ending,  199 ; 
essentials,  204  ff.  ;  source  of 
material,  181  ff.  ;  steps  in  prepa- 
ration, 179  ;  revision,  200  ;  title, 
180. 

Time  :  adverb  of,  8  ;  clause  of,  39. 

Title  :    method    of    writing,    81  ; 

.  of  theme,  180. 

Topic-sentence  :  development, 
244  ff.  ;  position  in  paragraph, 
240  ff. 

Tradition  :  353. 

Tragedy  :    first  English    tragedy, 


403 ;    nature   of    tragedy,   404  ; 

essentials  of,  405  ff. 
Transitional :       paragraph,      263 ; 

sentence,  252. 
Translation  :  methods,  87 ;   value, 

87. 
Travels  :  nature  and   value,   355 ; 

style,  355  ff. 
Trochee  :  419. 

Unities  :  405. 

Unity  :  in  nature,  204  ff.  ;  in  para- 
graph, 224  ff.  ;  in  sculpture  and 
painting,  205;  in  sentence,  279  ff. ; 
in  theme,  207  ff. 

Verb  :  attributive,  8  ;  auxiliary,  7  ; 
changes  in  verbs,  19  ff.  ;  copula- 
tive, 8  ;  defective,  8  ;  definition 
of  verb,  6  ;  impersonal,  8  ;  in- 
transitive, 7  ;  strong,  7  ;  transi- 
tive, 7  ;  weak,  7. 

Verb  phrase  :  6. 

Verse  :  different  uses  of  the  word, 
417  ;  definition  of  verse,  417 ; 
definition  of  a  verse,  417  ;  blank 
verse,  417  ;  heroic  verse,  419  ; 
irregular  verse,  420. 

Vividness  :  420. 

Vocabulary  :  nature  of  good  Eng- 
lish, 325. 

Voice :  definition,  19  ;  kinds,  20. 

Vowels  :  definition,  335  ;  sounds, 
334. 

Words  :  Anglo-Saxon,  322  ;  defini- 
tion of,  2  ;  classical,  324  ;  spe- 
cific, 324 ;  various  uses  of,  325  ff. 

Will:  309 ff. 

Would :  310  ff. 


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